Background
Healthy Births and Brain Growth
Maternal Health and Parenting Practices
Maternal Relationships and Efficacy
Family Support of Mother and Child
Methods
Study Design
Sample and Data
Measurement
Child Health, Physical Growth, and Cognitive Outcomes
Child Background
Proximal Predictors—Maternal Health and Nutrition Practices
Maternal Discipline and Preliteracy Practices
Distal Predictors—Maternal Relationships and Family Supports
Unobserved Cultural Factors Related to Group Membership
Data Analysis
Results
Ethnic groups | Latina mothers | Statistical differences viz. whitesa
| |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Asian and Pacific Islander | African-American | White | Mexican-American | Other Latinas | Spanish speaking | English speaking | Mexican-American | Other Latinas | Latina mothers: Spanish speaking | Latina mothers: English speaking | |
Mother’s age (years) | 30.0 (5.8) | 26.2 (6.2) | 29.3 (6.0) | 26.7 (6.0) | 27.5 (5.8) | 27.4 (5.8) | 26.4 (6.0) | −9.21*** | −2.96** | −7.00*** | −7.40*** |
Mother’s schooling, with some college or more (%) | 66 | 38 | 63 | 22 | 35 | 19 | 37 | 291.85*** | 12.47** | 315.98**** | 62.74*** |
Married (%) | 85 | 32 | 81 | 58 | 57 | 59 | 54 | 152.19*** | 43.95*** | 105.52*** | 122.16*** |
Households earning $25,000 or less yearly (%) | 19 | 57 | 20 | 57 | 40 | 61 | 40 | 247.23*** | 15.15** | 262.73*** | 53.64*** |
Count of children in household | 1.9 (1.0) | 2.4 (1.4) | 2.0 (1.1) | 2.4 (1.4) | 2.0 (1.1) | 2.3 (1.4) | 2.2 (1.3) | 4.57** | 1.67 | 4.15*** | 2.81** |
Subsample (n)b
| 1,252 | 1,469 | 3,777 | 999 | 436 | 766 | 591 | – | – | – | – |
Birth Events, Child Health, and Early Cognitive Gaps
Ethnic groups | Latina mothersa
| Statistical differences viz. whitesb
| |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Asian and Pacific Islander | African-American | White | Mexican-American | Other Latinas | Spanish speaking | English speaking | Mexican-American | Other Latinas | Latina mothers: Spanish speaking | Latina mothers: English speaking | |
Birth events (n = 6,419)c
| |||||||||||
Premature newborns per 100 births | 1.7 | 3.5 | 1.8 | 2.4 | 2.6 | 2.1 | 3.2 | 0.13 | 5.28** | 0.01 | 3.45** |
Birth weight (kg) | 3.2 (0.5) | 3.2 (0.6) | 3.4 (0.6) | 3.3 (0.6) | 3.3 (0.6) | 3.3 (0.6) | 3.3 (0.6) | −2.28*** | −2.5* | −2.35* | −3.04** |
9-month health and cognitive status (n = 7,869) | |||||||||||
Weight (kg) | 9.0 (2.6) | 9.0 (3.6) | 9.2 (2.9) | 9.7 (2.4) | 9.7 (2.9) | 9.8 (2.5) | 9.5 (2.5) | 3.73*** | 0.56 | 4.48*** | 0.44 |
Mother rates child’s health as “excellent” (%) | 58 | 60 | 68 | 52 | 62 | 49 | 63 | 45.59*** | 0.08 | 59.27*** | 3.06 |
Respiratory illness diagnosed since birth (%) | 6 | 15 | 14 | 12 | 8 | 10 | 13 | 4.96* | 0.02 | 6.00** | 0.01 |
Bayley mental score | 76.8 (9.3) | 76.4 (9.9) | 77.1 (9.7) | 76.3 (9.2) | 77.6 (10.0) | 76.3 (9.4) | 77.4 (9.6) | −1.58 | −2.17* | −3.22** | 0.92 |
Bayley motor score | 51.5 (16.7) | 52.4 (15.3) | 51.5 (16.2) | 52.2 (16.4) | 52.1 (15.6) | 52.4 (15.3) | 52.4 (15.3) | 0.60 | −0.09 | −0.82 | 1.74 |
24-month health and cognitive status (n = 6,796) | |||||||||||
Weight (kg) | 12.5 (1.8) | 12.9 (2.0) | 12.8 (1.8) | 13.3 (2.0) | 13.2 (2.1) | 13.3 (2.0) | 13.2 (2.1) | 4.34*** | 2.21*** | 5.81*** | 1.14 |
Body-mass index (BMI) | 17.0 (2.0) | 17.5 (2.1) | 17.4 (2.2) | 18.0 (2.4) | 17.7 (2.4) | 17.9 (2.4) | 17.6 (2.5) | 3.08** | 1.54 | 4.08*** | 1.05 |
Mother rates child’s health as “excellent” (%) | 54 | 59 | 69 | 49 | 63 | 48 | 63 | 61.77*** | 1.30 | 65.66*** | 9.04** |
Asthma diagnosed since birth (%) | 7 | 17 | 8 | 8 | 15 | 9 | 13 | 0.24 | 4.77* | 0.01 | 7.88** |
Bayley mental score | 127.6 (10.4) | 124.7 (10.0) | 130.1 (10.0) | 122.8 (9.6) | 124.1 (9.8) | 122.0 (8.8) | 125.1 (10.7) | −6.37*** | −5.53*** | −17.42*** | −6.79*** |
Bayley motor score | 80.7 (5.2) | 81. (4.8) | 80.7 (5.4) | 80.8 (5.4) | 80.7 (5.1) | 81.0 (5.4) | 80.7 (5.0) | 0.94 | −0.49 | 0.92 | 0.51 |
Child securely attached to mother (%) | 65 | 54 | 66 | 61 | 50 | 60 | 55 | 15.75*** | 15.48*** | 12.75*** | 17.34*** |
Data panel and change scores | Ethnic groups | Latino children | Statistical differences viz. whitesa
| ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Asian and Pacific Islander | African-American | White | Mexican-American | Other Latinas | Spanish speaking | English speaking | Mexican-American | Other Latinas | Latino children: Spanish speaking | Latino children: English speaking | |
9 months | 76.9 (9.65) | 75.9 (9.87) | 76.5 (9.33) | 76.3 (9.47) | 77.0 (9.43) | 76.1 (9.2) | 77.8 (9.9) | −1.58 | −2.17* | −3.22** | 0.92 |
24 months | 129.9 (10.27) | 124.4 (10.29) | 126.7 (10.33) | 123.1 (10.10) | 123.6 (10.62) | 121.9 (9.15) | 124.8 (11.39) | −6.37*** | −5.53*** | −17.42*** | −6.79*** |
Change in scale scores | 52.0 (12.64) | 48.6 (12.10) | 50.3 (12.98) | 46.7 (12.89) | 46.5 (12.57) | 45.8 (11.88) | 47.0 (14.19) | −12.28*** | −3.58*** | −12.18*** | −6.32*** |
Standardized change score | 0.13 (0.99) | −0.20 (0.95) | −0.07 (1.02) | −0.35 (1.01) | −0.36 (0.98) | −0.42 (0.93) | −0.32 (1.11) | −9.78*** | −2.46** | −8.91*** | −5.72*** |
Predictors of Child Health, Physical Growth, and Cognitive Development
Ethnic groups | Latino children | Statistical differences viz. Whitesa
| |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Asian and Pacific Islander | African-American | White | Mexican-American | Other Latinas | Spanish speaking | English speaking | Mexican-American | Other Latinas | Latino children: Spanish speaking | Latino children: English speaking | |
Mother’s prenatal practices and early feeding (n = 8,422) | |||||||||||
Smoked in last trimester (packs reported per 1,000 mothers) | 8 | 35 | 70 | 7 | 18 | 1 | 25 | 64.62*** | 1.05 | 95.45*** | 6.73** |
Drank alcohol at least once per week, last trimester (per 10,000 mothers) | 75 | 66 | 161 | 16 | 94 | 0 | 87 | 13.34*** | 0.50 | 4.40* | 3.66 |
Breastfed infant in last 7 days (% at 9-month interview) | 23 | 7 | 18 | 17 | 14 | 20 | 12 | 0.91 | 3.06 | 0.42 | 13.07*** |
Feeds unhealthy beverages: soda, artificial juice (%) | 19 | 32 | 20 | 39 | 22 | 40 | 26 | 65.95*** | 2.21 | 68.13*** | 6.86** |
Maternal relationships, support, mental health (at 9 months) | |||||||||||
Father resident in home (%) | 90 | 44 | 90 | 83 | 76 | 85 | 75 | 35.56*** | 32.29*** | 7.39** | 77.36*** |
Mother employed (%): | |||||||||||
Full-time | 35 | 41 | 31 | 26 | 36 | 26 | 36 | 0.94 | 0.20 | 5.62* | 5.79* |
Part-time | 14 | 16 | 24 | 13 | 18 | 13 | 16 | 20.44*** | 2.51 | 22.37*** | 6.84** |
Ratio of childen:adult resident in the home (%) | 0.9 | 1.5 | 1.0 | 1.1 | 0.9 | 1.0 | 1.2 | 1.26 | 1.38 | −0.18 | 2.58 |
Mother’s closeness to own mother (% close or very close) | 96 | 95 | 93 | 90 | 91 | 88 | 92 | 12.00*** | 0.01 | 12.30*** | 3.16 |
Mother’s efficacy in raising child (% reporting “very difficult”) | 9 | 7 | 6 | 8 | 11 | 10 | 7 | 2.61 | 0.53 | 3.29 | 0.57 |
Mental health, depressive symptoms CESD score | 16.8 (5.0) | 18.5 (6.1) | 16.7 (5.2) | 16.8 (5.8) | 16.5 (5.5) | 16.3 (5.6) | 17.2 (5.6) | 1.22 | −1.30 | −0.11 | 2.58 |
Parental discipline and pre-literacy practices (at 9 months) | |||||||||||
Mother punishes misbehavior (%) | 60 | 63 | 60 | 56 | 56 | 56 | 52 | 3.71 | 0.22 | 1.18 | 3.66 |
Harsh discipline index score (1–3) | 0.5 0.7) | 0.9 (0.8) | 0.6 (0.7) | 0.4 (0.6) | 0.4 (0.7) | 0.4 (0.6) | 0.5 (0.7) | −5.56*** | −0.14 | −7.26*** | −1.41 |
Preliteracy—reading, storytelling, singing index score (24 months) | 9.3 (2.0) | 8.7 (1.9) | 9.8 (1.8) | 8.4 (2.1) | 8.6 (2.0) | 8.0 (2.0) | 9.1 (1.9) | −12.88*** | −3.59*** | −14.03*** | −5.43*** |
NCATS teaching-task scores: | |||||||||||
Praises effort, encouragement | 2.0 (1.9) | 1.8 (1.8) | 2.1 (1.9) | 1.8 (1.8) | 2.0 (1.8) | 1.6 (1.7) | 2.0 (2.0) | −5.01*** | −1.29 | −5.03*** | −0.98 |
Responds to child distress | 4.2 (1.6) | 3.8 (1.7) | 3.9 (1.6) | 3.8 (1.7) | 3.8 (1.5) | 3.6 (1.7) | 4.0 (1.6) | −2.85** | −1.42 | −4.19*** | 0.06 |
Mother–father SES, standardized z-scores | 0.4 (0.9) | −0.5 (0.8) | 0.2 (0.8) | −0.7 (0.6) | −0.3 (0.7) | −0.7 (0.6) | −0.3 (0.7) | −26.74*** | −5.58*** | −31.63*** | −10.97*** |
Acculturation indicators (at 9 months) | |||||||||||
Dominant language spoken in the home (%): | |||||||||||
English | 47 | 96 | 97 | 33 | 41 | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Spanish | 0 | 0 | 0 | 40 | 39 | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Other Language | 53 | 4 | 3 | 25 | 18 | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Mother, foreign born (%) | 71 | 10 | 5 | 64 | 63 | 90 | 19 | 937.55*** | 134.41*** | 1583.89*** | 41.42*** |
Years resident in the U.S.b
| 17.7 (11.2) | 24.4 (7.6) | 28.3 (7.4) | 16.7 (10.5) | 17.3 (10.7) | 10.5 (8.2) | 24.2 (7.6) | −28.96*** | −6.83*** | −41.94*** | −7.63*** |
Estimating Child Health, Physical Growth, and Cognitive Development
Mom’s rating of child’s health | Child’s weight | BMI | |
---|---|---|---|
Odds ratio (SE) | WLS (SE) | WLS (SE) | |
Predictor Block 1—Basic child attributes
|
F 1.72 |
F 8.54*** |
F 8.78*** |
Female child | 1.25 (0.21) | −0.37 (0.12)* | −0.41 (0.17)* |
Child age | 1.00 (0.07) | −0.00 (0.06) | −0.33 (0.07) |
Child age, squared | 1.00 (0.01) | 0.02 (0.01) | 0.03 (0.01)* |
Predictor Block 2—Birth events and health status at 9 mos.
|
F 15.93*** |
F 19.87*** |
F 4.88*** |
Premature birth | 1.65 (0.59) | 0.45 (0.31) | 0.61 (0.35) |
Child’s weight (moderate to low) | 0.64 (0.12)* | −0.68 (0.17)*** | −0.25 (0.21) |
Child’s weight (very low) | 0.33 (0.13)* | −1.36 (0.30)*** | −0.60 (0.36) |
Multiple births | 1.56 (0.33)* | 0.21 (0.17) | 0.22 (0.21) |
Fertility intervention | 0.55 (0.21) | −0.15 (0.28) | 0.56 (0.43) |
Child’s health excellent at 9 mos. | 11.0 (8.90)* | 0.51 (0.18)* | −0.08 (0.17) |
Child’s health very good at 9 mos. | 4.93 (3.95) | 0.49 (0.19)* | −0.03 (0.20) |
Child’s health good at 9 mos. | 1.90 (1.50) | 0.35 (0.21) | −0.14 (0.26) |
Child’s weight at 9 mos. | – | 0.37 (0.05)*** | 0.28 (0.04) |
Predictor Block 3 - Parenting behaviors, nutrition, mother’s mental health
|
F 1.88 |
F 0.88 |
F 0.99 |
Maternal depression | 0.97 (0.02) | 0.01 (0.02) | 0.01 (0.03) |
Providing balanced meals | 0.86 (0.32) | 0.11 (0.18) | 0.22 (0.26) |
Soda, fruit drink at or between meals | 1.17 (0.21) | −0.08 (0.14) | −0.05 (0.15)* |
Harsh discipline | 1.06 (0.11) | −0.05 (0.07) | −0.10 (0.09) |
Punish child when rules are broken | 1.05 (0.16) | 0.18 (0.13) | 0.23 (0.16) |
Doctor’s visit | 1.03 (0.03) | –a
| –a
|
Preliteracy activities | 1.06 (0.03) | 0.07 (0.04) | 0.06 (0.05) |
Predictor Block 4—Maternal relationships and efficacy
|
F 0.69 |
F 1.70 |
F 1.75 |
Maternal rating of child as average difficulty | 0.86 (0.13) | 0.09 (0.13) | −0.05 (0.17)* |
Maternal rating of child as difficult | 0.85 (0.20) | 0.17 (0.19) | 0.28 (0.24)** |
Closeness to her own mother as fairly close | 1.01 (0.23) | 0.42 (0.20)* | 0.35 (0.22) |
Closeness to her own mother as not close | 1.01(0.27) | 0.05 (0.19) | −0.15 (0.20) |
Predictor Block 5—Family support
|
F 1.92 |
F 3.57* |
F 3.70* |
Father at home | 1.09 (0.22) | −0.39 (0.18)* | 0.54 (0.23) |
Social class index | 0.74 (0.09)* | −0.21 (0.13) | −0.21 (0.15) |
Child’s health insurance | 1.32 (0.55) | 0.40 (0.40) | 0.48 (0.34) |
Children to adults ratio | 0.77 (0.08)* | −0.30 (0.11)* | −0.28 (0.12) |
Maternal employment (Full-time) | 1.12 (0.19) | 0.25 (0.14) | 0.24 (0.19) |
Maternal employment (Part-time) | 0.95 (0.20) | −0.10 (0.13) | −0.06 (0.17) |
WIC Benefits | 0.85 (0.12) | −0.10 (0.16) | −0.05 (0.16) |
Predictor Block 6—Ethnic and linguistic group membership
|
F 5.85*** |
F 1.25 |
F 0.35 |
Latino, Mexican heritage | 0.45 (0.13)** | 0.03 (0.20) | 0.00 (0.20) |
Latino, Other heritage | 1.12 (0.39) | −0.40 (0.30) | 0.22 (0.31) |
Black | 0.63 (0.16) | 0.05 (0.23) | −0.08 (0.23) |
Asian-Pacific Islander | 0.78 (0.25) | −0.30 (0.20) | −0.17 (0.23) |
Predictor Block 7—Acculturation
|
F 4.50*** |
F 0.61 |
F 0.68 |
Home language, Spanish | 0.88 (0.31) | 0.15 (0.30) | 0.04 (0.35) |
Home language, other non-English | 0.68 (0.25) | 0.14 (0.27) | −0.17 (0.26) |
Foreign born | 1.25 (0.48) | 0.27 (0.30) | 0.44 (0.30) |
Years residing in U.S. | 1.02(0.01) | 0.01 (0.01) | 0.01 (0.01) |
N of cases (births) | 7,551 | 6,955 | 6,832 |
F-statistic, complete model | 4.50*** | 12.41*** | 4.97*** |
Strata and PSUs with sufficient data | 88, 114 | 88, 112 | 88, 112 |
R
2 (for WLS regressions) | – | 0.20 | 0.11 |
Bayley mental score | Bayley motor score | |
---|---|---|
WLS (SE) | WLS (SE) | |
Predictor Block 1—Basic child attributes
|
F 16.04*** |
F 2.16* |
Female child | 3.34 (0.70)*** | −0.23 (0.41) |
Child age | 1.63 (0.36)*** | 0.51 (0.22)* |
Child age, squared | −0.04 (0.07) | −0.08 (0.04) |
Predictor Block 2—Bayley score, birth and health status at 9 months
|
F 14.24*** |
F 5.74*** |
Bayley scale score at 9 months | 0.10 (0.03)* | 0.16 (0.02)*** |
Premature birth | −2.08 (1.52) | 1.57 (1.43) |
Child’s weight (moderate to low) | −0.37 (0.96) | −0.32 (0.54) |
Child’s weight (very low) | −4.74 (1.66)* | −1.05 (1.36) |
Multiple births | −3.45 (1.10)* | 0.61 (0.63) |
Fertility intervention | 1.55 (2.26) | −0.92 (0.87) |
Child’s health excellent at 9 mos. | 3.89 (3.27) | 0.71 (1.47) |
Child’s health very good at 9 mos. | 3.94 (3.30) | 0.65 (1.49) |
Child’s health good at 9 mos. | 3.29 (3.35) | −0.51 (1.53) |
Predictor Block 3—Parenting behaviors, nutrition, mother’s mental health
|
F 12.26*** |
F 1.83 |
Maternal depression | −0.58 (0.12)*** | −0.02 (0.07) |
Providing balanced meals to child | 4.08 (1.26)* | −1.19 (1.21) |
Soda, fruit drink at or between meals | −0.93 (0.73) | 0.39 (0.56) |
Harsh discipline | −0.12 (0.40) | 0.54 (0.27) |
Punish child when rules are broken | 0.01 (0.68) | 0.87 (0.41)* |
Preliteracy activities | 0.36 (0.18)a
| −0.09 (0.10) |
NCATS factor 1 (Praises effort & encourage) | 0.20 (0.21) | 0.04 (0.13) |
NCATS factor 2 (Responds to child distress) | 0.08 (0.19) | −0.13 (0.15) |
NCATS factor 3 (Warm affect, emotional support) | 0.43 (0.34) | 0.13 (0.22) |
NCATS factor 4 (Cognitive fostering, verbal guidance) | 0.17 (0.37) | −0.22 (0.29) |
NCATS factor 5 (Avoids negative comments) | −3.48 (1.68)* | 0.71 (1.25) |
Predictor Block 4—Maternal attitudes and knowledge
|
F 2.02 |
F 2.58* |
Raising child, average difficulty | −1.40 (0.77) | −0.44 (0.50) |
Raising child, difficult | −2.03 (1.19) | −0.17 (0.80) |
Closeness to her own mother as fairly close | −0.85 (1.19) | 0.92 (0.66) |
Closeness to her own mother as not close | −1.52 (0.97) | −0.90 (0.61) |
Predictor Block 5—Family support
|
F 5.25*** |
F 0.61 |
Father at home | −0.61 (0.95) | 1.35 (0.58)* |
Social class index | 1.43 (0.63)* | −0.38 (0.46) |
Child health insurance | −0.54 (3.28) | 1.79 (1.93) |
Children to adults ratio | −1.27 (0.56)* | 0.05 (0.38) |
Maternal employment (Full-time) | 1.68 (0.72)* | 0.14 (0.56) |
Maternal employment (Part-time) | 0.78 (0.98) | 0.50 (0.71) |
WIC Benefits | 0.41 (0.67) | 0.19 (0.52) |
Predictor Block 6—Ethnic and linguistic group membership
|
F 10.17*** |
F 0.72 |
Latino, Mexican heritage | −5.01 (1.42)* | 0.66 (0.63) |
Latino, Other heritage | −3.44 (1.69)* | 1.33 (0.99) |
Black | −3.91 (1.05)*** | 0.97 (0.60) |
Asian-Pacific Islander | −1.54 (1.40) | 0.63 (0.74) |
Predictor Block 7—Acculturation
|
F 1.29 |
F 1.84 |
Home language, Spanish | 1.41 (1.88) | 1.58 (1.59) |
Home language, other non-English | −0.91 (1.45) | 2.93 (1.46)* |
Foreign born | −1.58 (1.70) | −2.68 (1.33)* |
Years residing in U.S. | 0.03 (0.05) | 0.01 (0.04) |
Language mismatch | −0.03 (1.67) | 0.34 (1.07) |
N of cases | 6,413 | 5,322 |
F-statistic, complete model | 15.85*** | 4.06** |
Strata and PSUs with sufficient data | 88, 114 | 88, 114 |
R
2
| 0.28 | 0.13 |