Introduction
Method
Participants
Counties | Schools | Students | Boarding students | Non-boarding students | Students tested by Raven | Students tested by Wechsler | Students tested by the Big five | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total Sample | 19 | 160 | 5660 | 2601 | 3059 | 2503 | 472 | 5166 |
Province A | 7 | 90 | 3413 | 841 | 2572 | 1530 | 208 | 3136 |
Province B | 12 | 70 | 2247 | 1760 | 487 | 973 | 264 | 2030 |
Procedure
Definition | N | Mean | Std. Dev | Min | Max | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Panel A: Outcome variables | ||||||
WISC-IV scores | WISC-IV test scores | 472 | 88.258 | 10.948 | 59 | 124 |
Fluid Intelligence | The average of working memory, perceptual reasoning, and processing speed scores | 472 | 8.472 | 1.684 | 3.667 | 13.333 |
Crystal intelligence | The verbal comprehension score | 472 | 7.928 | 2.577 | 2 | 16 |
Similarities | Scores of scale | 472 | 7.928 | 2.577 | 2 | 16 |
Digit span | Scores of scale | 472 | 8.117 | 2.507 | 2 | 17 |
Coding | Scores of scale | 472 | 9.71 | 2.481 | 2 | 19 |
Matrix Reasoning | Scores of scale | 472 | 7.591 | 2.238 | 1 | 17 |
Raven's IQ | Raven's test scores | 2503 | 93.641 | 17.511 | 5.35 | 133.3 |
Math scores of 2016 | Standardized math scores | 5188 | .02 | 0.996 | -2.071 | 2.517 |
Extraversion | Scores of scale | 5166 | 3.349 | 0.562 | 1.125 | 5 |
Agreeableness | Scores of scale | 5166 | 3.739 | 0.536 | 1.444 | 5 |
Conscientiousness | Scores of scale | 5166 | 3.279 | 0.570 | 1.111 | 5 |
Neuroticism | Scores of scale | 5166 | 2.913 | 0.625 | 1 | 5 |
Openness | Scores of scale | 5166 | 3.411 | 0.569 | 1.3 | 4.9 |
Panel B: Student Characteristics | ||||||
Boarding | 1 = Student is boarding at school | 5660 | 0.460 | 0.498 | 0 | 1 |
Student age | A student’s age in years | 5660 | 12.917 | 0.964 | 10 | 17 |
Student gender | 1 = Male; 0 = Female | 5660 | 0.499 | 0.500 | 0 | 1 |
Left-behind child status | 1 = Father or mother migrated to a city for work for more than six months in the past year | 5660 | 0.525 | 0.499 | 0 | 1 |
Father's education level | 1 = Junior high school and above 0 = Junior high school below | 5660 | 0.359 | 0.480 | 0 | 1 |
Mather's education level | 1 = Junior high school and above 0 = Junior high school below | 5660 | 0.213 | 0.410 | 0 | 1 |
Family asset value | Indicators of wealth in the family | 5660 | -0.001 | 1.074 | -1.496 | 3.019 |
Math scores of 2015 | Standardized math scores | 5660 | -0.112 | 0.974 | -3.167 | 2.551 |
Panel C:School Characteristics | ||||||
School size | Number of students | 5660 | 217.91 | 96.641 | 46 | 447 |
Teacher-student ratio | Number of teachers per student | 5660 | 0.137 | 0.065 | 0.039 | .474 |
Time required for the school to be the furthest administrative village | hours | 5660 | 1.22 | 0.777 | 0.05 | 4 |
The rate of school boarders | The number of boarders divided by the total number of students in the school | 5660 | 0.469 | 0.409 | 0 | 1 |
Panel D:Teacher Characteristics | ||||||
Teaching years | years | 5660 | 9.072 | 6.954 | 0 | 38 |
Teacher’s gender | 1 = Male; 0 = Female | 5660 | 0.636 | 0.481 | 0 | 1 |
Teacher's education level | 1 = junior college above 0 = junior college and below | 5660 | 0.517 | 0.500 | 0 | 1 |
Teacher’s age | A teacher’s age in years | 5660 | 32.499 | 5.869 | 22.332 | 56 |
Teacher’s title | 0 = have no title;1 = third-grade title;2 = second-grade title;3 = first-grade tltle;4 = Senior professional title | 5660 | 1.093 | 1.005 | 0 | 4 |
Cognitive ability
Non-cognitive ability
Model design
Result
Distribution of cognitive abilities and non-cognitive abilities
Overall | Nonboarders | Boarders | Nonboarders—Boarders | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | Mean | N | Mean | N | Mean | Difference in mean | P-value | Effect size (Cohen’s d) | |
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) | |
Cognitive ability | |||||||||
WISC-IV scores | 472 | 88.258 | 243 | 87.070 | 229 | 89.520 | -2.450** | 0.015 | -0.225 |
Fluid Intelligence | 472 | 8.472 | 243 | 8.296 | 229 | 8.659 | -0.363** | 0.019 | -0.217 |
Crystal intelligence | 472 | 7.928 | 243 | 7.745 | 229 | 8.122 | -0.377 | 0.112 | -0.147 |
Similarities | 472 | 7.928 | 243 | 7.745 | 229 | 8.122 | -0.377 | 0.112 | -0.147 |
Digit span | 472 | 8.117 | 243 | 7.984 | 229 | 8.258 | -0.274 | 0.236 | -0.109 |
Coding | 472 | 9.71 | 243 | 9.712 | 229 | 9.707 | 0.005 | 0.984 | 0.002 |
Matrix Reasoning | 472 | 7.591 | 243 | 7.193 | 229 | 8.013 | -0.820*** | < 0.001 | -0.372 |
Raven's IQ | 2503 | 93.641 | 1363 | 93.691 | 1140 | 93.582 | 0.109 | 0.877 | 0.006 |
Math scores of 2016 | 5188 | .02 | 2816 | -0.004 | 2372 | 0.049 | -0.053* | 0.055 | -0.053 |
Non-cognitive ability | |||||||||
Extraversion | 5166 | 3.349 | 2802 | 3.329 | 2364 | 3.372 | -0.042*** | 0.007 | -0.076 |
Agreeableness | 5166 | 3.739 | 2802 | 3.758 | 2364 | 3.716 | 0.042*** | 0.005 | 0.078 |
Conscientiousness | 5166 | 3.279 | 2802 | 3.280 | 2364 | 3.277 | 0.003 | 0.861 | 0.005 |
Neuroticism | 5166 | 2.913 | 2802 | 2.904 | 2364 | 2.924 | -0.020 | 0.261 | -0.031 |
Openness | 5166 | 3.411 | 2802 | 3.409 | 2364 | 3.413 | -0.004 | 0.815 | -0.007 |
Grit scores | 5166 | 3.349 | 2809 | 3.385 | 2369 | 3.380 | 0.005 | 0.748 | 0.009 |
Overall | Students who did not take the Wechsler test | Students taking the Wechsler test | Differences | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | Mean | N | Mean | N | Mean | Difference in mean | P-value | Effect size (Cohen’s d) | |
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) | |
Student age | 5660 | 12.917 | 5188 | 12.914 | 472 | 12.948 | -0.034 | 0.457 | -0.036 |
Student gender | 5660 | .499 | 5188 | 0.499 | 472 | 0.504 | -0.005 | 0.829 | -0.010 |
Left-behind child status | 5660 | .525 | 5188 | 0.526 | 472 | 0.508 | 0.018 | 0.465 | 0.035 |
Father's education level | 5660 | .359 | 5188 | 0.359 | 472 | 0.360 | -0.001 | 0.965 | -0.002 |
Mather's education level | 5660 | .213 | 5188 | 0.212 | 472 | 0.225 | -0.013 | 0.510 | -0.032 |
Family asset value | 5660 | -.001 | 5188 | 0.003 | 472 | -0.044 | 0.047 | 0.366 | 0.043 |
Math scores of 2015 | 5660 | -.112 | 5188 | -0.110 | 472 | -0.139 | 0.029 | 0.529 | 0.030 |
Impact of boarding on cognitive abilities
variables | WISC IQ score | WISC IQ score | Fluid intelligence | Fluid intelligence | Crystal intelligence | Crystal intelligence |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OLS | IV | OLS | IV | OLS | IV | |
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | |
Boarding | 0.103 | 4.781 | -0.048 | 0.635 | 0.181 | 0.934 |
(1.040) | (3.592) | (0.179) | (0.573) | (0.266) | (0.925) | |
Student-level control variables | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES |
School-level control variables | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES |
Teacher-level control variables | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES |
Constant | 139.817*** | 139.866*** | 16.501*** | 16.527*** | 15.396*** | 15.365*** |
(8.633) | (8.702) | (1.408) | (1.387) | (2.309) | (2.240) | |
Observations | 472 | 472 | 472 | 472 | 472 | 472 |
R-squared | 0.418 | 0.393 | 0.371 | 0.348 | 0.286 | 0.286 |
County fixed effects | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES |
Phase I F-statistic values | 41.284 | 41.284 | 41.284 |
variables | Similarities | Digit span | Coding | Matrix reasoning | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OLS | IV | OLS | IV | OLS | IV | OLS | IV | |
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | |
Boarding | 0.181 | 0.934 | 0.278 | 2.024** | -0.685** | -0.472 | 0.263 | 0.352 |
(0.266) | (0.925) | (0.268) | (0.982) | (0.281) | (0.892) | (0.256) | (0.831) | |
Student-level control variables | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES |
School-level control variables | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES |
Teacher-level control variables | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES |
Constant | 15.396*** | 15.365*** | 18.264*** | 18.195*** | 19.467*** | 19.517*** | 11.771*** | 11.869*** |
(2.309) | (2.240) | (2.216) | (2.380) | (2.098) | (2.162) | (1.976) | (2.013) | |
Observations | 472 | 472 | 472 | 472 | 472 | 472 | 472 | 472 |
R-squared | 0.286 | 0.274 | 0.201 | 0.134 | 0.272 | 0.271 | 0.223 | 0.223 |
County fixed effects | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES |
Phase I F-statistic values | 41.284 | 41.284 | 41.284 | 41.284 |
Impact of boarding on students' non-cognitive abilities
variables | Extraversion | Agreeableness | Conscientiousness | Neuroticism | Openness | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OLS | IV | OLS | IV | OLS | IV | OLS | IV | OLS | IV | |
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) | (10) | |
Boarding | 0.036* | -0.064 | -0.034 | 0.023 | 0.009 | 0.109 | -0.001 | 0.034 | 0.005 | 0.097 |
(0.020) | (0.082) | (0.022) | (0.077) | (0.025) | (0.083) | (0.023) | (0.090) | (0.023) | (0.083) | |
Student-level control variables | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES |
School-level control variables | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES |
Teacher-level control variables | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES |
Constant | 3.541*** | 3.555*** | 3.687*** | 3.707*** | 3.193*** | 3.190*** | 2.753*** | 2.747*** | 3.368*** | 3.367*** |
(0.153) | (0.158) | (0.169) | (0.149) | (0.178) | (0.161) | (0.206) | (0.175) | (0.171) | (0.160) | |
Observations | 5,166 | 5,166 | 5,166 | 5,166 | 5,166 | 5,166 | 5,166 | 5,166 | 5,166 | 5,166 |
R-squared | 0.020 | 0.015 | 0.039 | 0.037 | 0.016 | 0.012 | 0.028 | 0.028 | 0.021 | 0.018 |
County fixed effects | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES |
Phase I F-statistic values | 342.982 | 342.982 | 342.982 | 342.982 | 342.982 | 342.982 |
Robustness test
variables | WISC IQ score | Fluid intelligence | Crystal intelligence | Similarities | Digit span | Coding | Matrix reasoning |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | |
Boarding | 4.781 | 0.635 | 0.898 | 0.934 | 2.024* | -0.472 | 0.352 |
(3.725) | (0.621) | (0.877) | (1.022) | (1.034) | (0 .990) | (0.890) | |
Student-level control variables | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES |
School-level control variables | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES |
Teacher-level control variables | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES |
Constant | 139.866*** | 16.527*** | 15.373*** | 15.365*** | 18.195*** | 19.517*** | 11.869*** |
(9.140) | (1.550) | (2.439) | (2.520) | (2.340) | (2.289) | (2.113) | |
Observations | 472 | 472 | 472 | 472 | 472 | 472 | 472 |
R-squared | 0.393 | 0.348 | 0.274 | 0.274 | 0.133 | 0.271 | 0.223 |
County fixed effects | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES |
Phase I F-statistic values | 41.732 | 41.732 | 41.732 | 41.732 | 41.732 | 41.732 | 41.732 |
variable | Extraversion | Agreeableness | Conscientiousness | Neuroticism | Openness |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | |
Boarding | -0.064 | 0.023 | 0.109 | 0.034 | 0.097 |
(0.087) | (0.076) | (0.088) | (0.092) | (0.080) | |
Student-level control variables | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES |
School-level control variables | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES |
Teacher-level control variables | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES |
Constant | 3.555*** | 3.707*** | 3.190*** | 2.747*** | 3.367*** |
(0.156) | (0.148) | (0.161) | (0.176) | (0.162) | |
Observations | 5,166 | 5,166 | 5,166 | 5,166 | 5,166 |
R-squared | 0.015 | 0.037 | 0.012 | 0.028 | 0.018 |
County fixed effects | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES |
Phase I F-statistic values | 342.982 | 342.982 | 342.982 | 342.982 | 342.982 |
variables | Raven’s IQ scores | Standardization Math scores of 2016 | Grit scores | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | |
Boarding | -0.548 | 1.669 | -0.052 | 0.086 | 0.003 | -0.014 |
(0.855) | (2.933) | (0.039) | (0.110) | (0.021) | (0.083) | |
Student-level control variables | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES |
School-level control variables | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES |
Teacher-level control variables | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES |
Constant | 167.539*** | 170.819*** | 2.049*** | 2.226*** | 3.146*** | 3.209*** |
(7.639) | (5.789) | (0.330) | (0.214) | (0.153) | (0.161) | |
Observations | 2,503 | 2,503 | 5,188 | 5,188 | 5,188 | 5,188 |
R-squared | 0.337 | 0.335 | 0.426 | 0.423 | 0.426 | 0.423 |
County fixed effects | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES | YES |
Phase I F-statistic values | 172.725 | 348.218 | 349.966 |
Heterogeneity analysis
variables | WISC IQ score | Fluid intelligence | Crystal intelligence | Similarities | Digit span | Coding | Matrix reasoning | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OLS | IV | OLS | IV | OLS | IV | OLS | IV | OLS | IV | OLS | IV | OLS | IV | |
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) | (10) | (11) | (12) | (13) | (14) | |
Panel A: Sample of male students | ||||||||||||||
Boarding | 0.448 | 9.128** | 0.132 | 1.494** | -0.205 | 0.998 | -0.205 | 0.998 | 0.346 | 2.756** | -0.604 | 0.295 | 0.654* | 1.432* |
(1.418) | (3.991) | (0.250) | (0.609) | (0.362) | (1.046) | (0.362) | (1.046) | (0.422) | (1.110) | (0.399) | (0.918) | (0.378) | (0.867) | |
Observations | 238 | 238 | 238 | 238 | 238 | 238 | 238 | 238 | 238 | 238 | 238 | 238 | 238 | 238 |
Phase I F-statistic values | 36.872 | 36.872 | 36.872 | 36.872 | 36.872 | 36.872 | 36.872 | |||||||
Panel B: Sample of female students | ||||||||||||||
Boarding | -0.584 | -1.371 | -0.336 | -0.275 | 0.512 | 0.167 | 0.512 | 0.167 | -0.102 | 1.284 | -0.674 | -0.456 | -0.231 | -1.652 |
(1.764) | (7.339) | (0.299) | (1.193) | (0.404) | (1.796) | (0.404) | (1.796) | (0.427) | (1.934) | (0.431) | (1.831) | (0.402) | (1.771) | |
Observations | 234 | 234 | 234 | 234 | 234 | 234 | 234 | 234 | 234 | 234 | 234 | 234 | 234 | 234 |
Phase I F-statistic values | 9.784 | 9.784 | 9.784 | 9.784 | 9.784 | 9.784 | 9.784 | |||||||
Panel C: Sample of left-behind children | ||||||||||||||
Boarding | -0.140 | 9.751* | 0.116 | 1.652** | -0.458 | 1.006 | -0.458 | 1.006 | 0.671 | 2.952** | -0.008 | 1.855 | -0.315 | 0.147 |
(1.653) | (5.256) | (0.266) | (0.828) | (0.438) | (1.344) | (0.438) | (1.344) | (0.425) | (1.385) | (0.434) | (1.255) | (0.354) | (1.159) | |
Observations | 240 | 240 | 240 | 240 | 240 | 240 | 240 | 240 | 240 | 240 | 240 | 240 | 240 | 240 |
Phase I F-statistic values | 21.891 | 21.891 | 21.891 | 21.891 | 21.891 | 21.891 | 21.891 | |||||||
Panel D: Sample of non-left-behind children | ||||||||||||||
Boarding | 1.909 | -1.566 | 0.045 | -0.770 | 0.925*** | 1.363 | 0.925*** | 1.363 | 0.079 | 1.470 | -0.623 | -3.446** | 0.680* | -0.336 |
(1.305) | (5.544) | (0.243) | (0.913) | (0.338) | (1.436) | (0.338) | (1.436) | (0.389) | (1.535) | (0.383) | (1.551) | (0.353) | (1.311) | |
Observations | 232 | 232 | 232 | 232 | 232 | 232 | 232 | 232 | 232 | 232 | 232 | 232 | 232 | 232 |
Phase I F-statistic values | 15.299 | 15.299 | 15.299 | 15.299 | 15.299 | 15.299 | 15.299 | |||||||
Panel E: Sample with poor family conditions | ||||||||||||||
Boarding | -1.441 | 6.109 | -0.280 | 0.809 | -0.012 | 1.311 | -0.012 | 1.311 | -0.255 | 1.519 | -1.246** | 0.064 | 0.661 | 0.842 |
(1.942) | (5.490) | (0.311) | (0.863) | (0.465) | (1.329) | (0.465) | (1.329) | (0.527) | (1.543) | (0.587) | (1.327) | (0.596) | (1.288) | |
Observations | 144 | 144 | 144 | 144 | 144 | 144 | 144 | 144 | 144 | 144 | 144 | 144 | 144 | 144 |
Phase I F-statistic values | 15.818 | 15.818 | 15.818 | 15.818 | 15.818 | 15.818 | 15.818 | |||||||
Panel F: Sample with good family conditions | ||||||||||||||
Boarding | 0.940 | 7.132 | 0.085 | 1.257 | 0.283 | 0.630 | 0.283 | 0.630 | 0.530 | 2.884** | -0.385 | 0.197 | 0.111 | 0.690 |
(1.365) | (5.126) | (0.233) | (0.831) | (0.324) | (1.304) | (0.324) | (1.304) | (0.366) | (1.402) | (0.346) | (1.282) | (0.318) | (1.174) | |
Observations | 328 | 328 | 328 | 328 | 328 | 328 | 328 | 328 | 328 | 328 | 328 | 328 | 328 | 328 |
Phase I F-statistic values | 19.995 | 19.995 | 19.995 | 19.995 | 19.995 | 19.995 | 19.995 |
Variables | Extraversion | Agreeableness | Conscientiousness | Neuroticism | Openness | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OLS | IV | OLS | IV | OLS | IV | OLS | IV | OLS | IV | |
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) | (10) | |
Panel A: Sample of male students | ||||||||||
Boarding | 0.002 | -0.113 | -0.060* | -0.099 | 0.025 | 0.006 | 0.023 | 0.053 | 0.031 | 0.101 |
(0.027) | (0.111) | (0.031) | (0.112) | (0.036) | (0.117) | (0.032) | (0.125) | (0.032) | (0.115) | |
Observations | 2,578 | 2,578 | 2,578 | 2,578 | 2,578 | 2,578 | 2,578 | 2,578 | 2,578 | 2,578 |
Phase I F-statistic values | 169.575 | 169.575 | 169.575 | 169.575 | 169.575 | |||||
Panel B: Sample of female students | ||||||||||
Boarding | 0.074** | 0.006 | -0.014 | 0.130 | -0.016 | 0.222* | -0.027 | 0.002 | -0.029 | 0.112 |
(0.033) | (0.119) | (0.028) | (0.106) | (0.031) | (0.118) | (0.033) | (0.130) | (0.030) | (0.118) | |
Observations | 2,588 | 2,588 | 2,588 | 2,588 | 2,588 | 2,588 | 2,588 | 2,588 | 2,588 | 2,588 |
Phase I F-statistic values | 176.668 | 176.668 | 176.668 | 176.668 | 176.668 | |||||
Panel C: Sample of left-behind children | ||||||||||
Boarding | 0.032 | -0.099 | -0.025 | 0.003 | 0.033 | 0.121 | 0.000 | 0.079 | 0.023 | 0.035 |
(0.025) | (0.126) | (0.027) | (0.115) | (0.033) | (0.126) | (0.035) | (0.136) | (0.030) | (0.123) | |
Observations | 2,715 | 2,715 | 2,715 | 2,715 | 2,715 | 2,715 | 2,715 | 2,715 | 2,715 | 2,715 |
Phase I F-statistic values | 142.219 | 142.219 | 142.219 | 142.219 | 142.219 | |||||
Panel D: Sample of non-left-behind children | ||||||||||
Boarding | 0.037 | -0.084 | -0.036 | 0.050 | -0.022 | 0.052 | -0.020 | 0.008 | -0.009 | 0.179 |
(0.032) | (0.117) | (0.032) | (0.115) | (0.035) | (0.121) | (0.033) | (0.133) | (0.034) | (0.123) | |
Observations | 2,451 | 2,451 | 2,451 | 2,451 | 2,451 | 2,451 | 2,451 | 2,451 | 2,451 | 2,451 |
Phase I F-statistic values | 172.425 | 172.425 | 172.425 | 172.425 | 172.425 | |||||
Panel E: Sample with poor family conditions | ||||||||||
Boarding | 0.025 | -0.157 | -0.039 | -0.056 | 0.019 | 0.173 | 0.006 | 0.129 | -0.007 | 0.135 |
(0.034) | (0.155) | (0.041) | (0.146) | (0.042) | (0.159) | (0.038) | (0.176) | (0.038) | (0.164) | |
Observations | 1,399 | 1,399 | 1,399 | 1,399 | 1,399 | 1,399 | 1,399 | 1,399 | 1,399 | 1,399 |
Phase I F-statistic values | 84.057 | 84.057 | 84.057 | 84.057 | 84.057 | |||||
Panel F: Sample with good family conditions | ||||||||||
Boarding | 0.044* | -0.016 | -0.030 | 0.065 | 0.003 | 0.081 | -0.005 | -0.002 | 0.005 | 0.063 |
(0.025) | (0.103) | (0.025) | (0.097) | (0.028) | (0.104) | (0.028) | (0.113) | (0.025) | (0.102) | |
Observations | 3,767 | 3,767 | 3,767 | 3,767 | 3,767 | 3,767 | 3,767 | 3,767 | 3,767 | 3,767 |
Phase I F-statistic values | 225.648 | 225.648 | 225.648 | 225.648 | 225.648 |