The implications of main findings
The aim of the present study has been to explore whether bystanding to bullying, independent of other risk factors, explains symptoms of depression 18 months later in four large industrial organizations in Sweden. To the best of our knowledge, this is one of few studies to investigate development of symptoms of depression as a long-term effect of bystanding to workplace bullying. The results show, when adjusting for other factors of importance, the association between bystanding to bullying and the development of symptoms of depression remained significant. The risk of developing symptoms of depression within 1.5 years is increased by 1.69 (1.13–2.53). Different investigators suggest that bullying not only negatively affects the targets’ work production, but also adversely affects bystanders to bullying behavior (Jennifer et al.
2003; Vartia
2003). Bystanders more often leave their jobs as a result of their contact with bullying than do non-exposed workers (Rayner et al.
2002, p. 56; Vartia
2001).
Guilt is a widely accepted feature of depression (Ghatavi et al.
2002). In order to emphasize that bystanders to bullying are not a homogenous group, Emdad (
2012, submitted article;
2012) has theoretically divided bystanders in four different subgroups according to their mentalization ability. According to Twemlow et al. (
2005), when you mentalize about another human being, you put yourself in her shoes and try to understand your own inner impulses.
At the same time you try to understand and feel the other person’s feelings and thoughts. The first group has high mentalization ability; they can untangle and read the signals and can understand if anyone else suffers. This group of witnesses intervenes and tries to do something about the situation. “In some cases, bystanders choose not to get involved, which may lead to feelings of guilt. In other instances, they may try to help the target by finding ways to retaliate against the bully. In any case, the witnesses spend a great deal of time-discussing the bullying, resulting in potentially lower productivity for the organization” (Pearson and Porath
2005).
According to the model, group 2 has normal mentalization ability; they notice what is going on but are powerless over it. They do not tolerate bullying, but they do not dare to intervene (Lutgen-Sandvik and Tracy,
ibid). They fear to lose their jobs. As a result, non-targeted co-workers also experience more stress, lower levels of job satisfaction, and higher turnover rates than individuals working in bully-free environments (Lutgen-Sandvik et al.
2007). Bystanders to bullying who develop symptoms of depression over time are in the subgroup number 2 in this theoretical model.
The third group in the model has low mentalization ability. They cannot see the health consequences of bullying. They tolerate bullying and ignore the processes that are going on. Group four has dysfunctional mentalization ability; they see bullying but blaming the victim. They do not participate, but believe that the victim has herself or himself to blame. Studies have shown that non-mentalizers quite often overestimate or underestimate aggression (Blair and Cipolotti
2000) and may therefore be surprised, for example, when somebody is frightened of them. “They tend to attribute negative intent to others when none is meant and are rigid and inflexible about their expectations of others. They are incapable of developing solutions to interpersonal problems that are acceptable to all parties; instead, solutions are biased in their favor (Twemlow et al.
2005).” Deficiency in mentalization stems from a relative deficiency of mentalizing in early attachment (Fonagy and Bateman
2006).
It was also shown (Table
2) that reduced role clarity was a predictor of depressive symptoms in the industrial settings. Worrall and Cooper (
1998) and Lapido and Wilkinson (
2002) reported reduced role clarity and increased work pressures as typical characteristics of organizational changes. Hence, negative acts associated with bullying in organizations characterized by change may primarily be related to task-oriented issues (Skogstad et al.
2007).
Reduced role clarity might provide a fertile ground for many bullies pick on a target that is competent in the group. They may target not only the vulnerable, but also those who threaten their sense of superiority or make them feel vulnerable (Yamada
2000, p. 4). “Lack of appreciation of being in the group” was a risk factor for developing symptoms of depression in this study. This finding is in line with Twemlow et al. (
2005), Lutgen-Sandvik and McDermott (
2008) who report that bullying behavior is much more complex than to be just a dyadic relationship between the bully and the victim of bullying. Thinking of bullying as a dyadic relationship, that is, involving only a bully and a target would lead to viewing it as just a subjective experience. As such, authorities may be less likely to believe target reports and take instantaneous corrective action.
One of the significant findings to emerge from this study is that “rumors of changes in the workplace”, further impact upon the employee’s mental health functioning. As shown in Table
1, although the total number of men who were bystanders to bullying was larger, the proportion of women who were bystanders to bullying and developed symptom of depression 18 months later was higher compared to men. This finding is in line with the results of a study by Skogstad et al. (
2007). Their data from a sample of 2,408 Norwegian employees confirmed that different organizational changes were associated with task-related bullying at work and that exposure to more changes increased the likelihood of being bullied. Gender-based bullying has increased in the industrial settings as female workers have been employed in roles that were traditionally viewed as “male.” Despite this, there is little empirical evidence of the incidence of workplace bullying in the industry, gender-based or otherwise (van Barneveld and Jowett
2005).
In the present study, the respondents who did not appreciate, being in the group, showed signs of depression 18 months later. Workplace bullying in Sweden has often taken the form of bullying with a group of workers as the perpetrator, ‘ganging up’ on an isolated and vulnerable individual (Leymann
1996); (Zapf and Einarsen
2005). For example, the
Näringsdepartementet (Ministry of Industry) paper states that a typical pattern of bullying can be identified in Sweden, which includes a spiral of mobbing behavior (Cited in Beale and Hoel
2010). The victim might experience fear, a sense of isolation, and insecurity at the prospect of meeting the bully in the group or visiting the location where the bullying has taken place or takes place; one is unable to attend meetings and may even vomit before, during or after the meeting, sometimes at the mere thought of the meeting. These are PTSD diagnostic criteria B4 and B5 (Kuehnel and LCSW
2010), and, in the long run, this approach-avoidance behavior could lead to clinical depression.
The results of the present study show that job strain was not a risk factor for depression. While control at work has generally been found to be related to high levels of satisfaction and low levels of experienced job stress (Hackman and Oldham
1980; Spector
1986), being exposed to workplace bullying should consequently by definition be characterized by gradually being deprived of control and possibilities to cope with bullying (Zapf and Einarsen
2005). In the present study, we would expect that the dimension of control in job strain would show a meaningful relationship with depression, but the results show that it is bystanding to bullying which is a risk factor for depression and not the job strain formulation.
Methodological considerations
The majority of studies on workplace bullying are based on cross-sectional design. Podsakoff et al. (
2003) suggested a temporal separation by introducing a time lag between the measurement of the predictor and criterion variables, in order to minimize the potential biasing effects of common methods variance. Thus, we used a design in which we collected data at two points in time separated by 18 months. The prospective design of our study did let us determine on the causal nature of the relationship between bystanding to workplace bullying and depression.
A previous study by Kivimaki et al. (
2003) reported a strong association between workplace bullying and subsequent depression, suggesting that bullying is an etiological factor for mental health problems. In the present study, we decided to define depression as “not having depression at T1 but having depression at T2.” In this way, risk factors for depression,
inter alia, bystanding to bullying could be better investigated. A reporting bias could be assumed as bystanding to workplace bullying, and depression was measured using self-reporting. This reporting bias is related to common method variance. One limitation was that the data on depression was based on self-reporting, which provides a range of depressive symptoms but not a depression diagnosis. Second, the bystanding to bullying question was very general, and different types of bullying were not specified. Third, our bullying data were pooled from self-reporting. Validated instruments were used to measure depressive symptoms (HAD-scale). One limitation of the study was the very low number of women in the study and the still lower number of cases among women.
Recommendations
Our data suggests that frequent bystanding to bullying may be a warning sign for developing future symptoms of depression. Our study gives grounds for actively collecting information on bullying behavior as part of screening during health control in occupational health services. Moreover, bullying should be the focus of preventive work in the industry. In conclusion, the results support the notion that bullying is not only a dyadic target-bully issue to be resolved. It has to be seen as a triadic relationship between bully, victim, and bystander and as a structural, organizational problem where many bystanders as well as targets suffer and are at risk of future health problems. Bystanders and the whole organization are involved in the process of bullying behavior, and, in turn, intervention programs should be focused on the whole workplace system.