Background
Methods
Study population
Measures
Domain | Criteria for healthy aging |
---|---|
Physical health | • Independent on all 7 ADLs (eating, dressing, taking care of their appearance, walking, getting in/out of bed, bathing, and toileting) and 7 IADLs (shopping, cooking, doing housework, taking medications, handling personal finances, using the telephone, and getting to places out of walking distance) [19, 20] |
Cognitive health | • Score of ≥ 78 on the Modified Mini-Mental State Examination (3MS) [18] |
Social health | • Positive responses (“mostly satisfied”, “pleased” or “delighted”) on each of 3 questions assessing satisfaction with social relationships (satisfaction with family, friendships, and recreational activities) • Reported availability of instrumental and emotional support (someone they can count on for help and support, someone they can call for help if injured, and someone they can count on to listen when they need to talk) [21] |
Psychological health | • Score of <16 on the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CES-D) scale [22] • “Good” general life satisfaction (i.e., answered “mostly satisfied”, “pleased”, or “delighted” when asked “How do you feel about your life as a whole right now?”) [21] |
Characteristics | Healthy aging (n = 359) | Not healthy aging (n = 587) | Total sample (n = 946) |
---|---|---|---|
Age, years (mean, SD)* | 73.6 (5.3) | 76.9 (6.3) | 75.7 (6.1) |
Gender (% female) | 59.6 | 61.0 | 60.5 |
Level of education* (%)
| |||
No formal schooling | 0.0 | 1.7 | 1.1 |
Some primary school | 7.2 | 15.3 | 12.3 |
Finished primary school | 13.1 | 14.1 | 13.7 |
Some secondary or high school | 36.5 | 32.7 | 34.1 |
Completed secondary or high school | 16.7 | 17.0 | 16.9 |
Some community/technical college | 4.7 | 4.8 | 4.8 |
Completed community/technical college | 8.9 | 8.4 | 8.6 |
Some university | 4.5 | 2.2 | 3.0 |
Bachelor’s degree | 5.9 | 2.7 | 3.9 |
Master’s degree or PhD | 2.5 | 1.0 | 1.6 |
Monthly household income, $ (mean, SD)*a | 1921 (1361) | 1545 (1154) | 1694 (1253) |
Perceived income adequacy (%)
| |||
Totally inadequate | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
Not very well/some difficulty | 10.0 | 13.1 | 12.0 |
Adequately | 63.5 | 62.0 | 62.6 |
Very well | 26.5 | 24.9 | 25.5 |
Life satisfaction with finances (%)*
| |||
Not happy | 9.5 | 12.8 | 11.5 |
Happy | 67.1 | 72.1 | 70.2 |
Very happy | 23.4 | 15.2 | 18.3 |
Occupation (%)
| |||
Unskilled | 15.9 | 19.9 | 18.4 |
Semiskilled | 20.3 | 18.4 | 19.1 |
Farmers | 19.2 | 23.7 | 22.0 |
Skilled | 17.3 | 13.6 | 15.0 |
Technicians and middle management | 10.0 | 10.9 | 10.6 |
Professionals | 17.3 | 13.5 | 14.9 |
Data analysis
Results
Bivariate analyses
Models with men and women combined
Healthy aging modela | Model 1 OR (95 % CI) | Model 2 OR (95 % CI) | Model 3 OR (95 % CI) | Model 4 OR (95 % CI) | Model 5 OR (95 % CI) | Model 6 OR (95 % CI) | Model 7 OR (95 % CI) | Model 8 OR (95 % CI) | Model 9 OR (95 % CI) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Educationb |
1.16 (1.08-1.25)
|
1.16 (1.08-1.25)
|
1.14 (1.05-1.23)
|
1.16 (1.06-1.27)
|
1.15 (1.05-1.26)
| ||||
Perceived income adequacy
| |||||||||
With some difficulty/not very wellc | |||||||||
Adequately | 1.49 (0.96-2.34) | 1.38 (0.89-2.17) | 1.13 (0.66-1.95) | 1.09 (0.64-1.88) | |||||
Very well | 1.51 (0.93-2.47) | 1.23 (0.75-2.05) | 0.86 (0.46-1.59) | 0.78 (0.42-1.46) | |||||
Life satisfaction with finances
| |||||||||
Not happyc | |||||||||
Happy | 1.50 (0.96-2.37) | 1.43 (0.91-2.26) | 1.42 (0.83-2.48) | 1.44 (0.84-2.51) | |||||
Very happy | 2.61 (1.56-4.44) |
2.22 (1.31-3.81)
|
2.67 (1.40-5.17)
|
2.58 (1.35-5.01)
| |||||
Occupational prestige
| |||||||||
Unskilledc | |||||||||
Semiskilled | 1.44 (0.92-2.26) | 1.37 (0.88-2.16) | 1.46 (0.93-2.30) | 1.39 (0.88-2.20) | |||||
Farmers | 1.21 (0.77-1.89) | 1.22 (0.78-1.92) | 1.24 (0.79-1.95) | 1.24 (0.79-1.97) | |||||
Skilled |
1.69 (1.05-2.73)
| 1.47 (0.91-2.40) | 1.61 (0.99-2.61) | 1.42 (0.87-2.33) | |||||
Technicians and middle management | 1.36 (0.79-2.32) | 1.15 (0.66-1.99) | 1.32 (0.76-2.28) | 1.13 (0.65-1.98) | |||||
Professionals |
1.93 (1.20-3.13)
| 1.18 (0.66-2.08) |
1.79 (1.10-2.92)
| 1.15 (0.64-2.04) |
Models stratified by gender
Healthy aging modela | Model 1 OR (95 % CI) | Model 2 OR (95 % CI) | Model 3 OR (95 % CI) | Model 4 OR (95 % CI) | Model 5 OR (95 % CI) | Model 6 OR (95 % CI) | Model 7 OR (95 % CI) | Model 8 OR (95 % CI) | Model 9 OR (95 % CI) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Educationb |
1.18 (1.07-1.31)
|
1.17 (1.06-1.30)
|
1.16 (1.04-1.28)
|
1.23 (1.08-1.39)
|
1.20 (1.06-1.37)
| ||||
Perceived income adequacy
| |||||||||
With some difficulty/not very wellc | |||||||||
Adequately |
1.77 (1.03-3.14)
| 1.63 (0.94-2.90) | 1.78 (0.92-3.55) | 1.69 (0.87-3.39) | |||||
Very well |
2.01 (1.09-3.78)
| 1.63 (0.87-3.13) | 1.50 (0.70-3.32) | 1.33 (0.61-2.98) | |||||
Life satisfaction with finances
| |||||||||
Not happyc | |||||||||
Happy | 1.25 (0.72-2.22) | 1.16 (0.66-2.07) | 0.89 (0.45-1.79) | 0.90 (0.45-1.82) | |||||
Very happy | 2.41 (1.25-4.72) |
2.01 (1.03-4.00)
| 1.81 (0.79-4.19) | 1.76 (0.76-4.10) | |||||
Occupational prestige
| |||||||||
Unskilledc | |||||||||
Semiskilled | 1.35 (0.79-2.30) | 1.29 (0.75-2.23) | 1.36 (0.80-2.35) | 1.31 (0.76-2.28) | |||||
Farmers | 1.39 (0.78-2.48) | 1.35 (0.75-2.42) | 1.51 (0.84-2.73) | 1.47 (0.81-2.67) | |||||
Skilled | 1.54 (0.83-2.88) | 1.17 (0.61-2.25) | 1.42 (0.75-2.69) | 1.12 (0.57-2.17) | |||||
Technicians and middle management | 1.07 (0.51-2.21) | 0.88 (0.41-1.84) | 1.04 (0.49-2.16) | 0.88 (0.41-1.86) | |||||
Professionals | 1.67 (0.93-3.04) | 0.89 (0.43-1.81) | 1.52 (0.83-2.81) | 0.88 (0.42-1.81) |
Healthy Aging Modela | Model 1 OR (95 % CI) | Model 2 OR (95 % CI) | Model 3 OR (95 % CI) | Model 4 OR (95 % CI) | Model 5 OR (95 % CI) | Model 6 OR (95 % CI) | Model 7 OR (95 % CI) | Model 8 OR (95 % CI) | Model 9 OR (95 % CI) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Educationb |
1.14 (1.03-1.28)
|
1.16 (1.04-1.30)
|
1.12 (1.01-1.26)
| 1.09 (0.95-1.25) | 1.09 (0.95-1.26) | ||||
Perceived income adequacy
| |||||||||
With some difficulty/not very wellc | |||||||||
Adequately | 1.02 (0.48-2.21) | 0.96 (0.45-2.07) | 0.39 (0.13-1.04) | 0.37 (0.13-1.01) | |||||
Very well | 0.90 (0.40-2.05) | 0.74 (0.32-1.71) |
0.24 (0.08-0.72)
|
0.22 (0.07-0.68)
| |||||
Life satisfaction with finances
| |||||||||
Not happyc | |||||||||
Happy | 2.02 (0.97-4.48) | 1.97 (0.95-4.37) |
3.88 (1.46-11.64)
|
3.95 (1.49-11.89)
| |||||
Very happy | 3.04 (1.30-7.47) |
2.60 (1.10-6.46)
|
6.79 (2.20-23.16)
|
6.66 (2.16-22.76)
| |||||
Occupational prestige
| |||||||||
Unskilledc | |||||||||
Semiskilled | 1.70 (0.75-3.94) | 1.62 (0.71-3.76) | 1.64 (0.70-3.84) | 1.54 (0.66-3.63) | |||||
Farmers | 1.09 (0.53-2.28) | 1.11 (0.54-2.35) | 0.98 (0.46-2.10) | 1.00 (0.47-2.14) | |||||
Skilled | 1.99 (0.93-4.34) | 1.92 (0.90-4.21) | 1.98 (0.91-4.40) | 1.91 (0.87-4.25) | |||||
Technicians and middle management | 1.77 (0.77-4.11) | 1.60 (0.68-3.77) | 1.70 (0.73-4.03) | 1.52 (0.63-3.67) | |||||
Professionals |
2.60 (1.14-6.05)
| 1.93 (0.74-5.14) |
2.41 (1.04-5.74)
| 1.77 (0.66-4.81) |