Background
Methodology
Study design and sample
Study variables
Statistical analysis
Results
Trends in the prevalence of hypertension and diabetes
2005 | 2008 | 2017 | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Population characteristics | Hypertension | No hypertension | p-value | Hypertension | No hypertension | p-value | Hypertension | No hypertension | p-value |
Overall | 126 (11.8%) | 820 (88.2%) | 107 (9.5%) | 859 (90.5%) | 372 (14.3%) | 1955 (85.7%) | |||
Sex | |||||||||
Female | 97 (13.9%) | 542 (86.1%) | 0.057 | 93 (12.8%) | 578 (87.2%) | < 0.001 | 289 (16.6%) | 1365 (83.4%) | < 0.001 |
Male | 29 (8.2%) | 278 (91.8%) | 14 (3.0%) | 281 (97.0%) | 83 (10.1%) | 590 (89.9%) | |||
Age | |||||||||
Median (IQR) | 37 (33–47) | 34 (29–39) | 44 (34–50) | 34 (29–39) | 48 (38–55) | 36 (31–44) | |||
25–34 years | 30 (8.6%) | 396 (91.4%) | 0.009 | 21 (4.9%) | 396 (95.1%) | < 0.001 | 48 (5.8%) | 761 (94.3%) | < 0.001 |
35–44 years | 37 (12.0%) | 288 (88.0%) | 31 (7.9%) | 296 (92.1%) | 84 (9.8%) | 647 (90.2%) | |||
45+ years | 59 (21.3%) | 136 (78.7%) | 55 (26.1%) | 167 (73.7%) | 240 (30.6%) | 547 (69.4%) | |||
Race | |||||||||
Non-Black African | 15 (10.4%) | 65 (89.6%) | 0.757 | 4 (13.9%) | 54 (86.1%) | 0.476 | 41 (20.3%) | 153 (79.7%) | 0.087 |
Black African | 111 (11.8%) | 754 (88.2%) | 103 (9.4%) | 805 (90.6%) | 331 (14.1%) | 1802 (85.9%) | |||
Marital status | |||||||||
Never married | 41 (9.5%) | 437 (90.5%) | 0.121 | 54 (8.5%) | 524 (91.6%) | 0.154 | 192 (11.9%) | 1288 (88.1%) | < 0.001 |
Ever married | 84 (14.3%) | 380 (85.7%) | 53 (11.7%) | 332 (88.3%) | 180 (18.9%) | 667 (81.1%) | |||
Highest educational qualification | |||||||||
None or Primary | 68 (15.1%) | 315 (84.9%) | 0.147 | 56 (13.4%) | 274 (86.6%) | 0.072 | 101 (18.9%) | 441 (81.1%) | 0.002 |
Secondary and above | 58 (9.74%) | 503 (90.3%) | 50 (8.0%) | 580 (92.0%) | 199 (12.3%) | 1253 (87.7%) | |||
Employment status | |||||||||
Unemployed | 59 (9.9%) | 462 (90.1%) | 0.108 | 54 (9.9%) | 423 (90.1%) | 0.314 | 249 (15.4%) | 1199 (84.6%) | < 0.001 |
Employed | 40 (13.0%) | 291 (87.0%) | 34 (7.9%) | 345 (92.1%) | 99 (11.0%) | 718 (89.0%) | |||
Other | 26 (20.3%) | 64 (79.7%) | 19 (13.4%) | 90 (86.6%) | 23 (33.7%) | 37 (66.3%) | |||
Locality | |||||||||
Urban formal | 57 (12.7%) | 326 (87.3%) | 0.491 | 47 (12.4%) | 323 (87.6%) | 0.072 | 236 (15.9%) | 1027 (84.1%) | 0.008 |
Urban informal | 34 (14.2%) | 180 (85.8%) | 30 (10.3%) | 208 (89.7%) | |||||
Tribal area/Rural informal | 28 (10.7%) | 239 (89.3%) | 25 (6.1%) | 238 (93.9%) | 99 (11.6%) | 636 (88.4%) | |||
Rural formal | 7 (6.2%) | 75 (93.8%) | 5 (5.9%) | 90 (94.1%) | 37 (10.1%) | 292 (89.9%) | |||
Hazardous alcohol consumption | |||||||||
No risk | 88 (13.2%) | 558 (86.8%) | 0.085 | 73 (9.7%) | 574 (90.3%) | 261 (14.1%) | 1359 (85.9%) | ||
Low risk | 24 (6.7%) | 175 (93.3%) | 25 (11.4%) | 181 (88.6%) | 0.230 | 83 (16.8%) | 407 (83.2%) | 0.078 | |
Medium risk | 12 (16.4%) | 52 (83.6%) | 6 (5.2%) | 62 (94.8%) | 13 (7.1%) | 137 (92.9%) | |||
High risk | 1 (5.5%) | 11 (94.5%) | 1 (1.2%) | 15 (98.8%) | 8 (22.6%) | 23 (77.4%) | |||
Addiction likely | 1 (4.4%) | 11 (95.6%) | 1 (1.7%) | 12 (98.3%) | 4 (9.3%) | 25 (90.7%) | |||
Exposure to ARVs | |||||||||
ARV exposed | 234 (15.1%) | 1150 (84.9%) | 0.478 | ||||||
ARV naive | 107 (13.0%) | 600 (87.0%) | |||||||
Viral load suppressed | |||||||||
Yes | 254 (15.9%) | 1231 (84.1%) | 0.033 | ||||||
No | 116 (11.9%) | 703 (88.1%) | |||||||
Perception of general health | |||||||||
Excellent | 5 (7.3%) | 88 (92.7%) | 0.003 | 5 (2.2%) | 161 (97.8%) | 0.006 | 42 (10.0%) | 371 (90.0%) | < 0.001 |
Good | 55 (9.0%) | 498 (91.0%) | 48 (9.9%) | 444 (90.1%) | 186 (13.2%) | 1134 (86.8%) | |||
Fair | 50 (19.3%) | 182 (80.7%) | 43 (14.5%) | 194 (85.5%) | 105 (18.4%) | 370 (81.6%) | |||
Poor | 15 (22.9%) | 51 (77.1%) | 11 (10.0%) | 59 (90.0%) | 39 (27.1%) | 78 (72.9%) | |||
Diabetes | |||||||||
Yes | 20 (56.1%) | 14 (43.9%) | < 0.001 | 17 (54.0%) | 10 (46.0%) | < 0.001 | 49 (52.7%) | 35 (47.3%) | < 0.001 |
No | 103 (10.3%) | 804 (89.7%) | 88 (7.7%) | 849 (92.3%) | 322 (13.1%) | 1919 (86.9%) | |||
Heart disease | |||||||||
Yes | 7 (28.8%) | 12 (71.2%) | 0.008 | 23 (41.8%) | 25 (58.2%) | < 0.001 | |||
No | 99 (8.7%) | 845 (91.3%) | 346 (13.6%) | 1922 (86.4%) | |||||
Cancer | |||||||||
Yes | 3 (54.5%) | 2 (45.5%) | 0.009 | 3 (65.5%) | 3 (34.5%) | < 0.001 | 4 (66.2%) | 4 (33.8%) | < 0.001 |
No | 120 (11.5%) | 816 (88.5%) | 102 (8.8%) | 855 (91.2%) | 365 (14.2%) | 1946 (85.8%) | |||
Mental distress | |||||||||
Yes | 71 (18.2%) | 327 (81.8%) | 0.004 | 5 (8.6%) | 31 (91.4%) | 0.951 | 128 (16.1%) | 512 (83.9%) | 0.230 |
No | 53 (7.52%) | 491 (92.5%) | 99 (8.9%) | 826 (91.1%) | 244 (13.7%) | 1443 (86.3%) | |||
Tuberculosis | |||||||||
Yes | 9 (15.4%) | 54 (84.6%) | 0.467 | 5 (7.6%) | 44 (92.5%) | 0.757 | 16 (19.5%) | 60 (80.5%) | 0.257 |
No | 114 (11.5%) | 766 (88.5%) | 100 (9.0%) | 815 (91.0%) | 352 (14.1%) | 1891 (85.9%) | |||
Health care access | |||||||||
Public | 109 (12.7%) | 675 (87.3%) | 0.113 | 90 (10.6%) | 649 (89.4%) | 0.104 | 337 (14.7%) | 1766 (85.3%) | 0.296 |
Private | 15 (7.1%) | 122 (92.9%) | 15 (6.3%) | 186 (93.7%) | 35 (12.7%) | 164 (87.3%) |
2005 | 2008 | 2017 | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Population characteristics | Diabetes | No diabetes | p-value | Diabetes | No diabetes | p-value | Diabetes | No diabetes | p-value |
Overall | 34 (3.3%) | 907 (96.7%) | 29 (2.8%) | 937 (97.2%) | 87 (3.2%) | 2242 (96.8%) | |||
Sex | |||||||||
Female | 22 (2.5%) | 614 (97.5%) | 0.198 | 26 (3.5%) | 645 (96.5%) | 0.227 | 63 (3.6%) | 1592 (96.4%) | 0.208 |
Male | 12 (4.5%) | 293 (95.5%) | 3 (1.5%) | 292 (98.5%) | 24 (2.5%) | 650 (97.5%) | |||
Age | |||||||||
Median (IQR) | 35 (29–44) | 34 (29–40) | 47 (37–53) | 34 (29–40) | 49 (42–57) | 37 (32–46) | |||
25–34 years | 10 (3.1%) | 415 (96.9%) | 0.866 | 5 (1.1%) | 411 (98.9%) | < 0.001 | 4 (0.7%) | 804 (99.3%) | < 0.001 |
35–44 years | 12 (3.1%) | 312 (96.9%) | 9 (2.2%) | 317 (97.8%) | 21 (2.8%) | 710 (97.2%) | |||
45+ years | 12 (4.1%) | 180 (95.9%) | 15 (9.2%) | 209 (90.8%) | 62 (6.8%) | 728 (93.2%) | |||
Race | |||||||||
Non-Black African | 3 (0.9%) | 76 (99.1%) | 0.030 | 3 (8.0%) | 55 (92.0%) | 0.103 | 10 (5.6%) | 183 (94.4%) | 0.184 |
Black African | 31 (3.3%) | 830 (96.7%) | 26 (2.7%) | 882 (97.3%) | 77 (3.1%) | 2059 (96.9%) | |||
Marital status | |||||||||
Never married | 11 (3.2%) | 465 (96.8%) | 0.944 | 11 (2.0%) | 566 (98.0%) | 0.097 | 38 (2.8%) | 1441 (97.2%) | 0.250 |
Ever married | 23 (3.3%) | 438 (96.7%) | 18 (4.5%) | 368 (95.5%) | 49 (3.9%) | 801 (96.1%) | |||
Highest educational qualification | |||||||||
None or Primary | 12 (3.0%) | 370 (97.0%) | 0.915 | 12 (4.5%) | 318 (95.5%) | 0.157 | 34 (7.1%) | 509 (92.9%) | < 0.001 |
Secondary and above | 22 (3.5%) | 535 (96.5%) | 16 (2.2%) | 614 (97.9%) | 37 (1.7%) | 1416 (98.3%) | |||
Employment status | |||||||||
Unemployed | 17 (3.0%) | 501 (97.0%) | 0.915 | 17 (2.4%) | 460 (97.6%) | 0.528 | 56 (3.4%) | 1394 (96.6%) | 0.582 |
Employed | 13 (3.7%) | 317 (96.3%) | 9 (2.9%) | 370 (97.1%) | 29 (3.0%) | 788 (97.0%) | |||
Other (incl. Old age pensioner. Sick/disabled and unable to work) | 4 (3.4%) | 85 (96.6%) | 3 (5.0%) | 106 (95.0%) | 2 (1.4%) | 58 (98.6%) | |||
Locality | |||||||||
Urban formal | 18 (4.2%) | 361 (95.8%) | 0.271 | 11 (3.1%) | 359 (96.9%) | 0.797 | 56 (3.5%) | 1209 (96.5%) | 0.241 |
Urban informal | 10 (4.8%) | 203 (95.2%) | 6 (2.0%) | 231 (98.0%) | |||||
Tribal area/Rural informal | 6 (2.1%) | 261 (97.9%) | 9 (2.5%) | 255 (97.53%) | 24 (2.8%) | 711 (97.2%) | |||
Rural formal | 0 (0.0%) | 82 (100%) | 3 (4.6%) | 92 (95.4%) | 7 (1.4%) | 322 (98.6%) | |||
Hazardous alcohol consumption | |||||||||
No risk | 22 (3.4%) | 623 (96.7%) | 0.040 | 22 (3.2%) | 625 (96.8%) | 0.679 | 62 (3.2%) | 1559 (96.9%) | 0.548 |
Low risk | 5 (1.1%) | 191 (98.9%) | 5 (1.9%) | 201 (98.1) | 19 (3.0%) | 472 (97.0%) | |||
Medium risk | 6 (9.6%) | 57 (90.4%) | 0 (0.0%) | 68 (100%) | 4 (5.3%) | 146 (94.7%) | |||
High risk | 0 (0.0%) | 12 (100%) | 1 (2.4%) | 15 (97.6%) | 1 (0.2%) | 30 (99.8%) | |||
Addiction likely | 1 (6.0%) | 11 (94.0%) | 0 (0.0%) | 13 (100%) | 0 (0.0%) | 29 (100%) | |||
Exposure to ARVs | |||||||||
ARV exposed | 56 (3.2%) | 1331 (96.8%) | 0.675 | ||||||
ARV naive | 26 (3.3%) | 680 (96.7%) | |||||||
Viral load suppressed | |||||||||
Yes | 56 (3.0%) | 1430 (97.0%) | 0.392 | ||||||
No | 30 (3.5%) | 790 (96.5%) | |||||||
Perception of general health | |||||||||
Excellent | 1 (1.5%) | 92 (98.5%) | 0.001 | 1 (0.9%) | 165 (99.1%) | 0.031 | 6 (1.2%) | 406 (98.8%) | < 0.001 |
Good | 14 (1.8%) | 537 (98.2%) | 10 (2.0%) | 481 (98.0%) | 42 (2.6%) | 1278 (97.5%) | |||
Fair | 15 (8.4%) | 214 (91.6%) | 15 (6.2%) | 223 (93.8%) | 22 (4.1%) | 457 (95.9%) | |||
Poor | 4 (3.9%) | 62 (96.1%) | 3 (2.7%) | 67 (97.3%) | 17 (13.9%) | 99 (86.1%) | |||
Hypertension | |||||||||
Yes | 20 (15.6%) | 103 (84.4%) | < 0.001 | 17 (16.1%) | 88 (83.9%) | < 0.001 | 49 (11.3%) | 322 (88.7%) | < 0.001 |
No | 14 (1.6%) | 804 (98.4%) | 10 (1.4%) | 849 (98.7%) | 35 (1.7%) | 1919 (98.3%) | |||
Heart disease | |||||||||
Yes | 5 (22.1%) | 15 (77.9%) | < 0.001 | 4 (5.5%) | 44 (94.5%) | 0.298 | |||
No | 23 (2.4%) | 920 (97.6%) | 83 (3.1%) | 2188 (96.9%) | |||||
Cancer | |||||||||
Yes | 3 (54.5%) | 2 (45.5%) | < 0.001 | 2 (48.7%) | 4 (51.3%) | < 0.001 | 3 (41.5%) | 5 (58.5%) | < 0.001 |
No | 31 (2.9%) | 905 (97.1%) | 25 (2.3%) | 933 (97.7%) | 84 (3.1%) | 2230 (96.9%) | |||
Mental distress | |||||||||
Yes | 19 (5.0%) | 376 (95.0%) | 0.061 | 3 (8.9%) | 33 (91.1%) | 0.053 | 25 (3.4%) | 615 (96.6%) | 0.789 |
No | 15 (2.1%) | 527 (97.9%) | 24 (2.3%) | 902 (97.7%) | 62 (3.1%) | 1627 (96.9%) | |||
Tuberculosis | |||||||||
Yes | 4 (7.4%) | 57 (92.6%) | 0.134 | 4 (7.1%) | 45 (92.9%) | 0.116 | 8 (5.9%) | 68 (94.1%) | 0.142 |
No | 30 (3.0%) | 850 (97.0%) | 24 (2.5%) | 892 (95.5%) | 79 (3.1%) | 2168 (96.9%) | |||
Health care access | |||||||||
Public | 28 (3.2%) | 753 (96.8%) | 0.559 | 21 (2.3%) | 719 (97.7%) | 0.190 | 69 (2.8%) | 2034 (97.2%) | 0.002 |
Private | 6 (4.4%) | 130 (95.6%) | 7 (5.1%) | 193 (94.9%) | 17 (8.1%) | 184 (91.9%) |
Factors associated with hypertension
Variables in the model | Crude OR (95% CI) | Adjusted OR (95% CI) |
---|---|---|
Sex | ||
Male | Reference | Reference |
Female | 1.81 (0.98–3.37) | 2.59 (1.26–5.32) * |
Age groups | ||
25–34 years | Reference | Reference |
35–44 years | 1.46 (0.73–2.92) | 1.72 (0.81–3.64) |
45+ years | 2.90 (1.43–5.89) ** | 4.03 (1.96–8.28) *** |
Race | ||
Non-Black African | Reference | Reference |
Black African | 1.15 (0.47–2.85) | 0.96 (0.34–2.81) |
Hazardous alcohol consumption | ||
No risk | Reference | Reference |
Low risk | 0.47 (0.23–0.95) * | 0.56 (0.26–1.24) |
Medium risk | 1.28 (0.55–2.98) | 1.48 (0.60–3.69) |
High risk | 0.38 (0.05–3.18) | 0.38 (0.04–3.37) |
Addiction likely | 0.29 (0.03–2.44) | 0.18 (0.01–2.92) |
Diabetes | ||
No | Reference | Reference |
Yes | 11.16 (4.14–30.05) *** | 11.73 (4.02–34.20) *** |
Mental distress | ||
No | Reference | Reference |
Yes | 2.73 (1.54–4.85) ** | 2.97 (1.59–5.54) ** |
Variables in the model | Crude OR (95% CI) | Adjusted OR (95% CI) |
---|---|---|
Sex | ||
Male | Reference | Reference |
Female | 4.81 (2.10–11.02) *** | 4.31 (1.94–9.58) *** |
Age groups | ||
25–34 years | Reference | Reference |
35–44 years | 1.68 (0.76–3.71) | 2.22 (0.99–4.97) |
45+ years | 6.95 (3.34–14.45) *** | 8.44 (3.92–18.15) *** |
Race | ||
Non-African | Reference | Reference |
African | 0.65 (0.19–2.17) | 0.67 (0.14–3.28) |
Locality | ||
Tribal area/Rural informal | Reference | Reference |
Rural formal | 0.96 (0.25–3.66) | 0.93 (0.35–2.46) |
Urban informal | 1.77 (0.90–3.51) | 2.40 (1.06–5.43) * |
Urban formal | 2.20 (1.13–4.28) * | 2.95 (1.34–6.53) ** |
Hazardous alcohol consumption | ||
No risk | Reference | Reference |
Low risk | 1.20 (0.61–2.36) | 1.44 (0.66–3.12) |
Medium risk | 0.50 (.018–1.42) | 0.78 (0.26–2.35) |
High risk | 0.11 (0.01–0.97) * | 0.15 (0.01–1.78) |
Addiction likely | 0.16 (0.02–1.47) | 0.25 (0.03–1.97) |
Perception of general health | ||
Excellent | Reference | Reference |
Good | 4.92 (1.49–16.22) ** | 3.72 (1.00–13.81) * |
Fair | 7.56 (2.33–24.58) ** | 5.44 (1.40–21.12) * |
Poor | 4.95 (1.30–18.80) * | 4.82 (1.05–22.20) * |
Diabetes | ||
No | Reference | Reference |
Yes | 14.03 (5.27–37.35) *** | 6.16 (1.68–22.59) ** |
Heart disease | ||
No | Reference | Reference |
Yes | 4.26 (1.33–13.70) * | 1.13 (0.23–5.52) |
Health care access | ||
Private | Reference | Reference |
Public | 1.76 (0.88–3.51) | 2.58 (1.02–6.51) * |
Variables in the model | Crude OR (95% CI) | Adjusted OR (95% CI) |
---|---|---|
Sex | ||
Male | Reference | Reference |
Female | 1.76 (1.29–2.41) *** | 2.33 (1.60–3.42) *** |
Age groups | ||
25–34 years | Reference | Reference |
35–44 years | 1.78 (1.11–2.83) * | 1.83 (1.12–3.00) * |
45+ years | 7.24 (4.88–10.74) *** | 7.32 (4.78–11.21) *** |
Race | ||
Non-Black African | Reference | Reference |
Black African | 0.65 (0.39–1.07) | 0.61 (0.33–1.13) |
Employment status | ||
Unemployed | Reference | Reference |
Employed | 0.68 (0.48–0.98) * | 0.76 (0.50–1.15) |
Other (incl. Old age pensioner, sick/disabled and unable to work) | 2.80 (1.45–5.40) ** | 2.27 (1.09–4.73) * |
Locality | ||
Rural informal | Reference | Reference |
Rural (farms) | 0.85 (0.51–1.42) | 1.58 (0.86–2.90) |
Urban | 1.44 (1.08–1.91) * | 1.61 (1.16–2.23) ** |
Exposure to ARVs | ||
ARV naive | Reference | Reference |
ARV exposed | 1.20 (0.85–1.68) | 0.97 (0.67–1.40) |
Hazardous alcohol consumption | ||
No risk | Reference | Reference |
Low risk | 1.23 (0.88–1.71) | 1.26 (0.83–1.93) |
Medium risk | 0.47 (0.24–0.91) * | 0.61 (0.29–1.30) |
High risk | 1.78 (0.57–5.57) | 4.43 (1.67–11.76) ** |
Addiction likely | 0.78 (0.31–1.94) | 1.10 (0.43–2.78) |
Diabetes | ||
No | Reference | Reference |
Yes | 7.38 (4.41–12.35) *** | 5.17 (2.69–9.96) *** |
Heart disease | ||
No | Reference | Reference |
Yes | 4.57 (2.35–8.88) *** | 3.36 (1.59–7.10) ** |
Factors associated with diabetes
Variables in the model | Crude OR (95% CI) | Adjusted OR (95% CI) |
---|---|---|
Sex | ||
Male | Reference | Reference |
Female | 0.55 (0.22–1.39) | 0.41 (0.14–1.20) |
Age groups | ||
25–34 years | Reference | Reference |
35–44 years | 1.00 (0.35–2.89) | 0.88 (0.29–2.66) |
45+ years | 1.32 (0.44–3.93) | 0.58 (0.19–7.75) |
Race | ||
Non-Black African | Reference | Reference |
Black African | 3.77 (1.04–13.65) * | 5.70 (1.10–29.44) * |
Perception of general health | ||
Excellent | Reference | Reference |
Good | 1.20 (0.15–9.78) | 1.41 (0.26–7.62) |
Fair | 5.91 (0.71–48.97) | 5.16 (0.92–29.01) |
Poor | 2.61 (0.25–27.00) | 2.30 (0.33–16.05) |
Hypertension | ||
No | Reference | Reference |
Yes | 11.16 (4.14–30.05) *** | 11.71 (3.78–36.29) *** |
Mental distress | ||
No | Reference | Reference |
Yes | 2.47 (0.93–6.54) | 1.09 (0.40–2.92) |
Health facility of choice | ||
Private | Reference | Reference |
Public | 0.73 (0.25–2.14) | 0.42 (0.15–1.11) |
Variables in the model | Crude OR (95% CI) | Adjusted OR (95% CI) |
---|---|---|
Sex | ||
Male | Reference | Reference |
Female | 2.31 (0.57–9.32) | 1.28 (0.28–5.77) |
Age groups | ||
25–34 years | Reference | Reference |
35–44 years | 2.03 (0.46–8.98) | 1.95 (0.43–8.86) |
45+ years | 9.14 (2.67–31.27) ** | 4.44 (1.00–19.73) * |
Race | ||
Non-African | Reference | Reference |
African | 0.32 (0.08–1.35) | 0.39 (0.09–1.81) |
Hypertension | ||
No | Reference | Reference |
Yes | 14.03 (5.27–37.35) *** | 7.56 (2.29–24.92) *** |
Heart disease | ||
No | Reference | Reference |
Yes | 11.71 (3.02–45.39) *** | 6.92 (1.62–29.62) ** |
Variables in the model | Crude OR (95% CI) | Adjusted OR (95% CI) |
---|---|---|
Sex | ||
Male | Reference | Reference |
Female | 1.47 (0.80–2.70) | 1.80 (0.86–3.78) |
Age groups | ||
25–34 years | Reference | Reference |
35–44 years | 3.88 (1.01–14.93) * | 6.38 (1.80–22.62) ** |
45+ years | 9.88 (2.96–32.95) *** | 7.90 (2.11–29.58) ** |
Race | ||
Non-African | Reference | Reference |
African | 0.54 (0.211–1.36) | 0.52 (0.15–1.82) |
Educational level | ||
None or Primary | Reference | Reference |
Secondary and above | 0.22 (0.13–0.39) *** | 0.31 (0.16–0.59) *** |
Exposure to ARVs | ||
ARV naive | Reference | Reference |
ARV exposed | 0.98 (0.54–1.77) | 0.94 (0.47–1.85) |
Perception of general health | ||
Excellent | Reference | Reference |
Good | 2.18 (0.86–5.52) | 1.15 (0.41–3.26) |
Fair | 3.56 (1.30–9.81) * | 1.04 (0.32–3.35) |
Poor | 13.46 (4.63–39.15) *** | 6.48 (1.65–25.41) ** |
Hypertension | ||
No | Reference | Reference |
Yes | 7.38 (4.41–12.35) *** | 4.60 (2.34–9.07) *** |
Heart disease | ||
No | Reference | Reference |
Yes | 1.79 (0.59–5.46) | 0.77 (0.18–3.31) |
Healthcare access | ||
Private | Reference | Reference |
Public | 0.34 (0.17–0.70) ** | 0.25 (0.11–0.60) ** |