Background
The beneficial effects of volunteering on health outcomes have been well documented. Research has found that participation in voluntary services is significantly predictive of better mental and physical health [
1,
2], life satisfaction [
3], self-esteem [
3,
4], happiness [
5,
6], lower depressive symptoms [
4,
7], psychological distress [
3,
8], and mortality and functional inability [
8,
9]. As proved recently, the health benefits of volunteering are not due to self-selection bias. Recent longitudinal research did not support reverse causation, in which volunteering was significantly related to better health prospectively, and the reverse was not true [
2].
What remains uncharted for the relationship between volunteering and health outcomes is pertinent to whether volunteering may have cumulative effects on health and what form of volunteering is preferable for promoting health benefits for volunteers [
1,
7,
9]. Regarding the volunteering and health connection, the role accumulation perspective supports the position that a volunteer who concomitantly participates in different types of voluntary services can benefit his or her health most [
2,
4,
5,
8]. The rationale is that role-related social privileges, resources, supportive network, coping skills, life meaning and gratitude accumulated through assuming multiple prosocial roles can be directly conducive to various health outcomes. In contrast, the scarcity thesis argues that simultaneous occupation of multiple roles would result in conflict and strain, which would compromise health [
2,
4]. Therefore, it is worth investigating whether participation in multiple voluntary services contemporaneously, that is, the cumulative effects, would contribute to better health outcomes in the general public according to the relationship between volunteering and health.
This study is drawn from the meaning-fulfilling perspective that volunteering in general, by its prosocial and meaning-making nature, would positively contribute to health benefits [
2,
10,
11]. However, different forms of volunteering are believed to have differential effects on health benefits [
10‐
12]. Recent philanthropic research reports that the form of other-oriented volunteering has better health effects than does self-oriented volunteering in elderly people or in convenience samples [
10,
11]. This is congruous with the meaning-fulfilling perspective with regard to the subtly different meaning-making processes that the two forms of volunteering engender. Other-oriented volunteering refers to helping others in need mainly by altruistic responsibilities and humanitarian concerns [
2,
11]. These concerns can more effectively help accrue genuine supportive relationships and social integration, self-worth, a sense of mattering, and life meaning and therefore better contribute to health benefits [
2,
11]. Self-oriented volunteering means the stress of volunteers on the reciprocity of volunteering, or volunteering affordance expressed by some scholars, that is, to seek benefits and enhance the volunteers themselves in return. Examples include strengthened social network and ties, understanding of self, acquisition of new skills, and career development [
10‐
12]. In fact, such self-enhancing volunteerism is less effective in accruing meaningful and health-promoting benefits, e.g. supportive relationships and a sense of mattering, in the process of volunteering compared to other-oriented volunteering [
2,
3,
11]. Thus, it is worth investigating whether the forms of other-oriented and self-oriented volunteering have different cumulative effects on health outcomes.
The current study aimed to investigate the cumulative effects of other-oriented and self-oriented volunteering, formed by participation in multiple pertinent voluntary services contemporaneously, on the health outcomes of perceived mental and physical health, life satisfaction, depression, and social well-being in a population-based sample of general adults. In addition, this study compared whether other-oriented volunteering has stronger health effects than does self-oriented volunteering.
Results
Table
1 presents the correlations of the five health outcomes and the predictors of other-oriented and self-oriented volunteering. Mental and physical health, life satisfaction and social well-being were significantly and positively correlated with each other, rs = .247 to .369, ps < .001, and they were significantly and negatively correlated with depression, rs = −.334 to −.491, ps < .01. The predictors of other-oriented and self-oriented volunteering were significantly correlated with the five health outcomes.
Table 1
Correlations of the study variables
1. | Mental health | -- | | | | | | |
2. | Physical health | .369** | | | | | | |
3. | Life satisfaction | .425** | .299** | | | | | |
4. | Social well-being | .142** | .158** | .136** | | | | |
5. | Depression | −.463** | −.334** | −.491** | −.358** | | | |
6. | Other-oriented volunteering | .142** | .158** | .136** | 221** | −.098** | | |
7. | Self-oriented volunteering | .132** | .155** | .098** | 160** | −.088** | .591** | -- |
Table
2 presents the results of multivariate linear regression of other-oriented volunteering on the five health outcomes. Results showed that other-oriented volunteering was significantly predictive of better mental health, β = .082, physical health, β = .087, life satisfaction, β = .071, and social well-being, β = .106, ps < .01, as well as fewer depressive symptoms, β = −.044,
p < .05. The results were held even accounting for multiple pertinent socio-demographic variables. Likelihood ratio estimates found that additional participation in voluntary services in the form of other-oriented volunteering resulted in an 8.54% increase in mental health, 9.08% in physical health, 7.35% in life satisfaction, and 11.11% in social well-being, as well as 4.30% decrease in depression, giving evidence that higher participation in voluntary services pertinent to other-oriented volunteering contributes to better health benefits cumulatively.
Table 2
Multivariate linear regression of other-oriented volunteering on the health outcomes of mental and physical health, life satisfaction, social well-being, and depression
1. | Other-oriented volunteering | .082** | 3.043 | .087** | 3.046 | .071** | 4.225 | .106** | 5.057 | −.044* | −2.472 |
2. | Female | −.043 | −1.668 | −.003 | −.123 | −.003 | −.166 | .042* | 2.088 | .023 | 1.340 |
3. | Age | −.064* | −2.181 | −.188** | −6.068 | .059** | 3.223 | −.052* | −2.281 | −.076** | −3.912 |
| Race/Ethnicity | | | | | | | | | | |
4. | Black | −.024 | −.929 | −.042 | −1.538 | −.030+
| −.1839 | −.041* | −2.038 | .023 | 1.326 |
5. | Hispanic | −.092 | −3.132 | −.116** | −3.708 | −.036* | −1.975 | −.081** | −3.525 | .021 | 1.100 |
6. | Other | −.016 | −.621 | −.048 | −1.786 | −.004 | −.223 | .001 | .053 | .020 | 1.178 |
7. | Education | .139** | 4.959 | .119** | 4.003 | .059** | 3.361 | .105** | 4.781 | −.096** | −5.150 |
8. | US citizen | −.011 | −.379 | −.040 | −1.353 | −.024 | −1.334 | .079** | 3.564 | .064** | 3.437 |
9. | Married | .105** | 3.891 | .069* | 2.397 | .127** | 7.481 | .210** | 9.854 | −.105** | −5.853 |
10. | Number of children | −.041 | −1.439 | −.032 | −1.084 | −.030+
| −1.688 | .005 | .231 | .004 | .211 |
11. | Employed | .071** | 2.620 | .110** | 3.799 | −.005 | −.292 | .012 | .541 | −.080** | −4.411 |
12. | Family income | −.012 | −.457 | .104** | 3.684 | .028+
| 1.678 | .071** | 3.378 | −.106 | −.922 |
13. | Income missing | .005 | .177 | −.048+
| −1.754 | −.021 | −1.298 | −.051* | −2.491 | −.020 | −1.174 |
| R2
| .076 | .119 | .106 | .196 | .103 |
| Model chi-square (df) | 2164.205(75)** |
Moreover, self-oriented volunteering was significantly predictive of better mental health, β = .063, physical health, β = .069, life satisfaction, β = .036, and social well-being, β = .053, ps < .05, but did not significantly predict depressive symptoms, β = −.021,
p > .05 (Table
3). Likelihood ratio estimates showed that additional participation in voluntary services in the form of self-oriented volunteering resulted in a 6.50% increase in mental health, 7.14% in physical health, 3.66% increase in life satisfaction, and 5.44% increase in social well-being, also giving evidence to the cumulative effects of self-oriented volunteering on health benefits.
Table 3
Multivariate linear regression of self-oriented volunteering on the health outcomes of mental and physical health, life satisfaction, social well-being, and depression
1. | Self-oriented volunteering | .063* | 2.364 | .069* | 2.456 | .036* | 2.164 | .053* | 2.547 | −.021 | −1.219 |
2. | Female | −.035 | −1.376 | .005 | .172 | .003 | .204 | .051* | 2.519 | .019 | 1.125 |
3. | Age | −.069* | −2.353 | −.193** | −6.243 | .053** | 2.907 | −.061** | −2.653 | −.072** | −3.732 |
| Race/Ethnicity | | | | | | | | | | |
4. | Black | −.021 | −.830 | −.039 | −1.438 | −.028+
| −1.700 | −.038+
| −1.869 | .021 | 1.248 |
5. | Hispanic | −.095** | −3.218 | −.118** | −3.794 | −.039* | −2.095 | −.085** | −3.657 | .023 | 1.174 |
6. | Other | −.015 | −.581 | −.046+
| −1.739 | −.004 | −.224 | .001 | .505 | .020 | 1.178 |
7. | Education | .147** | 5.318 | .127** | 4.333 | .070** | 4.038 | .122** | 5.594 | −.103** | −5.598 |
8. | US citizen | −.005 | −.182 | −.035 | −1.168 | −.017 | −.967 | .088** | 4.002 | .060** | 3.228 |
9. | Married | .105** | 3.873 | .069* | 2.381 | .127** | 7.437 | .209** | 9.779 | −.105** | 5.838 |
10. | Number of children | −.036 | −1.274 | .027 | −.920 | −.026 | −1.445 | .011 | .516 | .001 | .071 |
11. | Employed | .068* | 2.487 | .106** | 3.654 | −.006 | .363 | .010 | .453 | −.079** | 4.351 |
12. | Family income | −.016 | −.592 | .100** | 3.522 | .027 | 1.573 | .069** | 3.239 | −.015 | −.868 |
13. | Income missing | .007 | .283 | −.045 | −1.639 | −.019 | −1.194 | −.048* | −2.359 | −.021 | −1.226 |
| R2
| .074 | .117 | .099 | .185 | .101 |
| Model chi-square (df) | 2140.092(75)** |
The Wald test of parameters equivalence constraint was performed to examine whether the effects of other-oriented and self-oriented volunteering on health outcomes were significantly different. The predictors of other-oriented and self-oriented volunteering were first put into two regression equations separately while retaining all the socio-demographic covariates in the multivariate linear regression models intact. Then, the two regression equations were simultaneously pooled in a single comparison model and the parameters of other-oriented and self-oriented volunteering were set to be equivalent (β
other-oriented = β
self-oriented). Results showed that other-oriented volunteering had significantly stronger effects on the health outcomes of mental and physical health, life satisfaction, and social well-being than did self-oriented volunteering (Table
4), but they did not differ in the effect on depression. The strongest different effect was for social well-being (difference in betas), then life satisfaction, and mental and physical health. The beta differences range from .053 to.018.
Table 4
Results of parameters equivalence constraints for effects of other-oriented and self-oriented volunteering on health outcomesa
1 | Mental health | .082 (.027) | .063 (.027) | .019 | 9.237** |
2 | Physical health | .087 (.028) | .069 (.028) | .018 | 13.797*** |
3 | Life satisfaction | .071 (.017) | .036 (.017) | .035 | 4.139* |
4 | Social well-being | .106 (.021) | .053 (.021) | .053 | 9.735*** |
5 | Depression | −.044 (.018) | −.021 (.018) | .023 | .029 |
Discussion
The present study investigated the cumulative effects of other- and self-oriented volunteering on various health outcomes in a population-based sample of general adults, a previously uncharted research topic. Results confirmed that volunteering, regardless of the form being examined, had significant health effects. Past pertinent research investigating the volunteering and health connection mainly focused on a subpopulation of people, e.g. elderly people, or disregarded the interrelated relationships between the health outcomes, hence compromising external validity and accuracy of the results [
7‐
9]. Results of this study add evidence to the literature that volunteering engenders health benefits across various health outcomes in a cumulative way by participation in several voluntary services contemporaneously in the general adult public. Consistent with prior research, the present study supports the beneficial effects of volunteering on mental and physical health, life satisfaction, social well-being and depression. However, despite the cumulative health effects of volunteering across various health outcomes found in this study, the magnitude of these health effects did vary. Most notable are the strongest effect of other-oriented volunteering on social well-being and the strongest effect of self-oriented volunteering on physical health, which reveal the different nature of these two forms of volunteering. Other-oriented volunteering is more other-regarding, altruistic and humanitarian-concerned than is self-oriented volunteering; the latter is more self-enhancing and self-actualizing [
10,
11]. Thus, more trustworthy interpersonal relationships, a supportive network, a sense of mattering and life meaning are expected for other-oriented volunteering rather than self-oriented volunteering. In contrast, self-oriented volunteering may involve more physical, cultural and career activities that may maximize the physical health of volunteers. However, these postulates do not negate the also robust positive effect of other-oriented volunteering on physical health, and the above explanations are tentative. Hence, more research is needed.
In addition, the Wald test of the parameters equivalence constraint supports the stronger health effects of other-oriented volunteering rather than of self-oriented volunteering, indicating that serving others out of sheer altruism, genuineness and humanitarian concern is important in reaping better health. The serving process of other-oriented volunteering stresses unselfishness, sharing, other-directedness, and generosity, which are counteractive to the ego-centric and self-serving culture that is upheld nowadays and may harm mental and behavioural health [
23]. In fact, some personal intrinsic motives, e.g. narcissism and self-preoccupation, may lead to health-compromising behaviour and then detriment to health [
23,
24]. Recent mental health research supports the importance of some virtues, e.g. generosity and gratitude, in relation to health [
25,
26]. Therefore, it is plausible that the health effects of other-oriented volunteering are significantly stronger than those of self-oriented volunteering found in this study (Table
4). In addition, this difference in intrinsic motives between other-oriented and self-oriented volunteering helps explain why the former can alleviate depression but the latter does not, as self-preoccupation and pursuits are etiologic of depression [
24].
However, when comparing the effects of other-oriented and self-oriented volunteering on depression, the Wald test did not find a significant difference between the two forms of volunteering. This corresponds to the eudaimonic theory of well-being and past research results of volunteering effects on positive and negative affect [
8,
27]. These results indicate that engaging in meaningful and prosocial behaviours, e.g. volunteering, may effectively enhance positive emotions but may be less efficacious in reducing negative affect or mental distress. This may be due to volunteering that, regardless of the form, is not a direct problem-solving strategy to tackle and resolve negative affect, that is, caused by a specific life situation such as traumatic events and experiences. Hence, the weakest significant effect of other-oriented volunteering, β = −.044,
p < .05, and the weakest and insignificant effect of self-oriented volunteering on depression, β = −.021,
p > .05, are evident in this study. Thus, it is comprehensible to have an insignificant difference when comparing the effects of the two forms of volunteering on depression. Nevertheless, future research should put a lens on different health effects of volunteering on the positive and negative side of health outcomes.
Recent research studies have reported that other-oriented volunteers tend to be more involved, satisfied and persistent in their volunteering work than are self-oriented volunteers [
11,
28]. Therefore, when promoting the health effects of volunteerism, health professionals, educators and policymakers should note the importance of volunteers of different orientations in influencing the sustainability and provision of services. In fact, a better matching strategy is needed for the alignment of appropriate types of voluntary services to volunteers of different orientations [
28,
29]. As the results of better health benefits by other-oriented volunteering obtained from this investigation and other pertinent studies show [
2,
11,
29], related parties and organizations should highlight the health benefits of serving others in need with altruistic attitudes and humanitarian concerns and promote an other-regarding culture of volunteerism. Table
1 shows a significant correlation between other-oriented and self-oriented volunteering, implying that some volunteers may cut across and simultaneously participate in other- and self-oriented forms of voluntary services. Hence, future research should explore if this mixed form of volunteering might result in comparatively better health benefits than other forms might.
In this study, the adult participants who were older, non-White, had less education, were unmarried, and unemployed had poorer health outcomes across both the other-oriented and the self-oriented volunteering regression models. In fact, people with these background characteristics also tend to volunteer less [
3,
7,
14], which would occasion a twofold effect on their health risks. Hence, promoting volunteering opportunities to these people can be a way of keeping them healthy.
Conclusion
Public health, education and policy practitioners are advised to encourage volunteering as a kind of healthy lifestyle among the general public, especially in the form of other-oriented volunteering. They should have social service professionals promote a culture of volunteerism among underprivileged social groups, e.g. elderly people, ethnic minorities, lower-educated people, unmarried and unemployed people. Although there has been a changing trend toward episodic and self-oriented volunteering in recent years [
11,
27,
28], highlighting the better health effects of other-oriented volunteering and promoting the basic altruistic and other-regarding nature of volunteerism should be noted for the related practitioners. However, the present study has certain limitations. First, cross-sectional data make causality of the relationships impossible. Second, self-reported health outcomes are less favourable than are the objectively diagnosed health outcomes. Third, broad classification of participation in various types of voluntary services into other- and self-oriented volunteering based on secondary data is less adequate than are first-hand data, which can more effectively help clarify the nature of voluntary services for classification purposes. Hence, it is necessary to be aware of the limitations of the classification approach based on the secondary data used in this study. Lastly, neither the present investigation nor most prior studies have explored possible mediators that link the relationship between volunteering and health, which is important for comprehension of the mechanisms that volunteering engenders on health benefits. Therefore, future studies should address these limitations and provide a more comprehensive picture of the health benefits of volunteering.