Effects of plasma concentrations of mineral elements on in vitro cytokine responses by PBMCs
The biochemical data showed that most children in this study had nutrient deficiencies, particularly in zinc and magnesium and to a lesser extent iron deficiency anaemia. Zinc deficiency was associated with increased TNF responses in children with malaria infection at the time of blood collection but not in those without infection. TNF is a pro-inflammatory cytokine resulting in pathology if not properly regulated. In children with malarial infection, zinc deficiency was associated with increased production of IL-1β and IL-10, even if this increase did not bring the levels to those reached by individuals in the non-infected group. This is important because IL-10 is required to limit the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, so that they do not lead to pathological consequences [
31]. The low production of IL-10, however, could be due to the fact that the cytokine is said to be produced late (
in vivo) following infection relatively to the innate cytokines. The initial production of TNF could also be the triggering factor by feedback mechanisms for production of IL-10 although Ramharter
et al [
32] reported increased responsiveness of
in vivo primed cells as compared to malaria-naïve cells, with a tendency towards increased production of TNF. This can possibly explain the difference between subjects who were exposed or non-exposed at the time of blood collection, in response to
in vitro stimulation in our study. These results show possible alterations in innate cytokine production particularly TNF and IL1-β due to the reported impaired macrophage functions and NK-cells activity in zinc deficiency [
1,
2,
13,
33]. Interaction between these cells leads to the production of innate cytokines in the early stages of infections.
The relatively higher cytokines levels in individuals with malarial infection as compared to their uninfected peers (Figure
2), however, can be explained by the priming of the immune system by malaria. Exposure of T cells to a plethora of Plasmodium antigens leads to priming, so that these cells during subsequent exposures even with subsets of these antigens can produce greatly increased amounts of IFN-γ. This cytokine is necessary for up-regulation of production of TNF and other pro-inflammatory cytokines by monocytes, but also Th subsets and even natural killer cells, in malaria infection [
26,
34]. The cellular source of these abundantly produced cytokines, like IL-1β and IL-10 remain to be established in future studies, as besides monocytes/macrophages and B-cells, also various T-cell subsets will be involved. The increase in innate cytokine production in zinc-deficient individuals with malarial infection can be the result of a shift in activated monocytes towards a pro-inflammatory immune response, associated increased levels of TNF and IL-1β, due to zinc deficiency in combination with prior priming of these cells due to previous exposure to malaria, as has been suggested before [
35]. The initial contact with the pathogen directs towards production of pro-inflammatory cytokines to limit infection. Loharungsikul
et al [
36] proposed Toll-like receptors (TLRs) to play a role in innate immune recognition in which the differential expression of TLRs on antigen presenting cells (APCs) could be regulated by the
P. falciparum parasite. This could account for the increase in levels of TNF in malaria-positive individuals regardless of micronutrient status (Figure
1). Glycosylphosphatidyl inositols (GPIs) that anchor
P. falciparum merozoite surface protein 1 (MSP1) and merozoite surface protein 2 (MSP2) were described to be the pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) preferentially recognised by TLR-2 and TLR-4 [
37]. The recognition and the interaction between these molecular patterns signal the induction of pro-inflammatory cytokine production. In addition, it is possible that parasite DNA attached to malarial pigment (haemozoin) produced in the course of infection further activates the innate immune response through TLR-9 engagement [
38]. The expression of TLRs has been found to differ between malaria-infected and uninfected individuals, with higher expression being observed in infected patients [
24,
39]. These recent studies have further indicated TLR-2 to be highly expressed in mononuclear cells, particularly monocytes of
P. falciparum-infected children and that TLR-2 are well responsive following stimulation with pRBCs resulting into stronger signals with consequential change in cytokine production profiles.
Unfortunately, the design of this study did not allow to ascertain the duration of infection at the time of blood collection. The children investigated may have been infected for some time, and may not have relied on the innate cytokines measured to control infection at the time of blood collection. It is also important to note that this concerned a cross-sectional study, that samples that were collected in a single time point, and that cytokines measured had accumulated in supernatant following 24-h stimulation of cultured cells. The design of our study does not allow time-dependent production of cytokines, or to establish specific cell subsets are sources of the cytokines measured.
The interesting result in this study is that the impact of magnesium deficiency on early cytokine responses followed a different profile from that observed with zinc status. Magnesium deficiency seemed to be associated overall with low TNF concentrations, low concentrations of IL-1β and higher concentrations of IL-10 in uninfected but not infected donors (Figure
2). Low levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in malaria are critical because they reduce the ability of the initial innate immune response to limit infection. These results imply that magnesium deficiency directs early cytokine responses towards anti-inflammatory rather than pro-inflammatory cytokine responses, although further studies are still needed to confirm this hypothesis. The significantly increased IL-10 and variable alteration in levels of TNF and IL-1β in both malaria-negative and malaria-positive subjects with magnesium deficiency may explain the imbalance in cytokine production as a result of magnesium deficiency modulated by malaria status.
Methodological differences may explain contradictions between our findings and those from previous studies [
7,
9,
40]. Parasitized erythrocytes were used to simulate the
in vivo infection, whereas others used mitogens, lipopolysaccharides (LPS), phytohemagglutinin (PHA) and polyclonal stimulation. In addition, we used Ficoll-isolated PBMCs that had been stored for several months under frozen conditions, whereas whole blood stimulated within 15 minutes of collection was also used in some of the previous studies. McCall
et al [
24] stimulated freshly prepared PBMCs from adult naïve volunteers
ex vivo with
P. falciparum antigens. These findings suggest that zinc and other micronutrients can protect against malaria infection by a different means such as targeting specific pathogenic processes of infection
in vivo [
41]. Nevertheless, the idea that zinc can also reduce production of pro-inflammatory cytokines by inhibiting signal transduction in monocytes in healthy human subjects [
42], particularly IL-1β and TNF [
2,
43,
44], should be further explored. The latter idea is also supported by
in vitro studies [
45,
46] in other conditions than malaria.
The results from this study and those conducted by others [
47,
48], IL-12 concentrations were below the detection limits. The most probable reason is the time required for maximal priming of pathogen recognition receptors (e.g. TLRs) on PBMCs by
P. falciparum-parasitized erythrocytes. McCall
et al [
24] have shown that pro-inflammatory priming effects of
P. falciparum require up to 48 hours to develop maximally, whereas we measured cytokines after 24 hours of stimulation. This priming is lacking in our culture system despite the reported poor
in vitro induction of IL-12 by
P. falciparum [
49]. IL-12 levels obtained
in vitro from stimulated monocytes and macrophages are generally low and zinc deficiency is reported to be associated with further decreased IL-12 production [
50]. Early IL-12 activity is also liable to suppression by transforming growth factor (TGF)-β [
51,
52] that has been reported to variably influence and result in weak IL-12 activation and production, at least
in vivo. Most of our donors responded towards production of IL-1β rather than TNF and IL-10. This is interesting since although different arguments reveal the pathological effect of IL-1β on cerebral malaria and severity of the disease in children [
53], IL-1β together with other pro-inflammatory cytokines like IFN-γ and IL-6 is said to be protective against malaria by inducing parasite killing by monocytes, macrophages and neutrophils [
54]. Production of IL-1β is induced by direct interaction between zinc and monocytes through activation of interleukine-1 receptor associated kinase (IRAK) which is dose-dependent [
44]. Lower
in vivo zinc levels, partially inhibit IRAK leading to diminished but not completely inhibited normal T-cells IL-β response. Results from this study may also reflect that stimulation of cryopreserved PBMCs by pRBCs results in a gradual production of innate cytokines preceded by IL-1β from the monocytes.