Background
Methods
Plant materials and extraction
Plant family/Plant sample - Herbarium voucher number | Traditional use | Part used in this study | Potential active compounds characterized | Previously screened activity |
---|---|---|---|---|
APOCYNACEAE/Alstonia boonei De Wild – 43368/HNC | Leaves, bark | Echitamine, echitamidine, Voacangine, akuammidine, N- α-formylechitamidine, N- α-formyl-12-methoxyechitamidine [29]. | ||
APOCYNACEAE/Catharanthus roseus L. – 5689/HNC. | Leaves, stem | Vincristine, vinblastine, benzoic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, salicylic acid, 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid, 2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid, 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid, 3,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid, gallic acid, vanillic acid, chlorogenic acid, kaemferol trisaccharides, Quercetin trisaccharides, Syringetin glycosides [20, 34]. | ||
ASTERACEAE/Ageratum conyzoïdes Linn. – 19050/SFR-Cam | Whole plant | β-caryophyllene, precocene I, friedelin, Lycopsamine, echinatine,β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, 5-methoxynobiletin, linderoflavone B, eupalestin, sabinene, α and β pinene, β-phellandrene, 1,8-cineole and limonene, ocimene, eugenol [35]. | ||
EUPHORBIACEAE/Croton macrostachys Hochst. – 40501/HNC | Leaves | Neoclerodan-5,10-en-19,6β;20,12-diolide; 3α,19-Dihydroxytrachylobane; 3α,18,19-Trihydroxytrachylobane, lupeol, lupenone, betulinic acid, 28-O-acetylbetulin, betulin, lupeol acetate, zeorin, benzoic acid, methyl gallate, methyl 2,4-dihydroxy-3,6-dimethylbenzoate, lichexanthone, β-sitosterol, and β-sitosterol palmitate, stigmasterol, botulin, crotepoxide [42, 43]. | ||
FABACEAE/Cassia obtusifolia L. – 39847/HNC | Laxative, eye infections, diarrhea, urinary tract infections, gingivitis, fever, cough [25]. | Whole plant | aloe-emodin, 1-methylaurantio-obtusin-2-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, emodin, 1,2- dihydroxyanthraquinone, obtusin, chrysoobtusin, aurantioobtusin, gluco-obtusifolin, glucoaurantioobtusin, gluco-chryso-obtusin, 1-desmethylaurantio-obtusin, 1-desmethylaurantio-obtusin-2-O-β- D-glucopyranoside, 1-desmethylchryso-obtusin, 1-desmethyl-obtusin, aurantio-obtusin-6-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, alaternin-1-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, chrysoobtusin-2-O-β-D-glucopyranoside physicon-8-O-β-D-glucoside, obtusifolin, O-methyl-chrysophanol, emodin-1-O-β-gentio-bioside, chrysophanol-1-O-β-gentiobioside, physcion-8-O-β-gentiobioside, physcion-8-O-β-glucoside, chrysophanol-1-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(13)-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1 → 6)-β-D-glucopyranoside, chrysophanic acid, physcion, questin, 1,3-dihydroxy-8-methylanthraquinone, chrysophanol- 10,10′-bianthrone, torosachrysone [44]. | |
SAPINDACEAE/Paullinia pinnata L. – 10702/SRF-Cam | Malaria, erectile dysfunction [24]. | Leaves, stem |
Preliminary phytochemical screenings
Chemicals
Bacterial strains and culture media
Strains | Characteristics | References |
---|---|---|
Escherichia coli
| ||
ATCC10536 | Reference strain | |
AG100 | Wild-type E. coli K-12 | [50] |
AG100A | AG100 ΔacrAB::KANR | |
AG100ATET | ΔacrAB mutant AG100, with over-expressing acrF gene ; TETR | |
AG102 | ΔacrAB mutant AG100, owing acrF gene markedly over-expressed; TETR | |
MC4100 | Wild type E. coli | [55] |
W3110 | Wild type E. coli | |
Enterobacter aerogenes
| ||
ATCC13048 | Reference strain | |
CM64 | CHLR resistant variant obtained from ATCC13048 over-expressing the AcrAB pump | [57] |
EA3 | Clinical MDR isolate; CHLR, NORR, OFXR, SPXR, MOXR, CFTR, ATMR, FEPR | |
EA27 | Clinical MDR isolate exhibiting energy-dependent norfloxacin and chloramphenicol efflux with KANR AMPR NALR STRR TETR | |
EA289 | KAN sensitive derivative of EA27 | [60] |
EA294 | EA289 acrA::KANR | [60] |
EA298 | EA 289 tolC::KANR | [60] |
Enterobacter cloacae
| ||
ECCI69 | Clinical MDR isolates, CHLR | [61] |
BM67 | Clinical MDR isolates, CHLR | [61] |
BM47 | Clinical MDR isolates, CHLR | [61] |
Klebsiella pneumoniae
| ||
ATCC12296 | Reference strain | |
KP55 | Clinical MDR isolate, TETR, AMPR, ATMR, CEFR | [62] |
KP63 | Clinical MDR isolate, TETR, CHLR, AMPR, ATMR | [62] |
K24 | AcrAB-TolC, Laboratory collection of UNR-MD1, University of Marseille, France | [61] |
K2 | AcrAB-TolC, Laboratory collection of UNR-MD1, University of Marseille, France | [61] |
Providencia stuartii
| ||
NEA16 | Clinical MDR isolate, AcrAB-TolC | [63] |
ATCC29916 | Clinical MDR isolate, AcrAB-TolC | |
PS2636 | Clinical MDR isolate, AcrAB-TolC | |
PS299645 | Clinical MDR isolate, AcrAB-TolC | |
Pseudemonas aeruginosa
| ||
PA 01 | Reference strain | |
PA 124 | MDR clinical isolate | [64] |
S. aureus | ||
ATCC 25923 | Reference strain | |
MRSA 3 | Clinical MDR isolate OFXR, KANR, TETR, ERMR | [65] |
MRSA 4 | Clinical MDR isolate OFXR, KANR, CHLR, CIPR | |
MRSA 6 | Clinical MDR isolate OFXR, FLXR, KANR, TETR, CIPR, IM/CSR | |
MRSA 8 | Clinical MDR isolate OFXR, FLXR, KANR, ERMR, CIPR, IM/CSR | |
MRSA 11 | Clinical MDR isolate OFXR, KANR, ERMR, CIPR, IM/CSR | |
MRSA 12 | Clinical MDR isolate OFXR, FLXR, KANR, ERMR, IM/CSR |
INT colorimetric assay for MIC and MBC determinations
Results
Phytochemical composition
Plant extract (used part) | Extraction yield (%) | Phytochemicals groups | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alkaloids | Triterpenes | Sterols | Flavonoids | Polyphenols | Saponins | ||
A. boonei (leaves) | 15.8 % | - | - | + | - | + | + |
A. boonei (bark) | 9.65 % | + | + | + | + | + | + |
A. conyzoïdes (whole plant) | 8.52 % | - | + | + | - | - | + |
C. macrostachys (Leaves) | 12.72 % | - | + | + | - | + | + |
C. obtusifolia (whole plant) | 7.11 % | + | + | + | + | + | + |
C. roseus (leaves) | 6.89 % | + | - | + | + | + | + |
C. roseus (stem) | 4.23 % | + | + | + | + | + | - |
P. pinnata (leaves) | 10.84 % | - | + | + | - | + | + |
P. pinnata (stem) | 5.47 % | - | + | + | - | + | + |
In vitro antibacterial effect of plant extract
A. conyzoïdes (whole plant) |
A. boonei
| C. obtusifolia (whole plant) |
C. roseus
| C. macrostachys (leaves) |
P. pinnata
| Reference drugs | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Leaves | Bark | Leaves | Stem | Leaves | (Stem) | Chloramphenicol | ||||
Escherichia coli
| ||||||||||
ATCC8739 | - | 512 (−) | - | - | 512 (−) | - | 512 (−) | 1024 (−) | - | 2 (128) |
ATCC10536 | 256 (−) | - | - | - | 512 (−) | 1024 (−) | 256 (−) | 128 (−) | - | <2 (64) |
AG100 | 1024 (−) | - | - | 256 (1024) | 1024 (−) | - | 1024 (−) | 256 (−) | 128 (−) | 8 (128) |
AG100A | 1024 (−) | - | - | 512 (−) | 128 (−) | 256 (−) | - | 256 (−) | 256 (−) | <2 (128) |
AG100ATET | 1024 (−) | 512 (−) | 1024 (−) | - | 1024 (−) | - | - | - | 512 (−) | 32 (−) |
AG102 | 512 (−) | 512 (−) | 1024 (−) | - | - | - | 1024 (−) | - | 256 (−) | 64 (−) |
MC4100 | - | - | - | - | 512 (−) | 512 (−) | 256 (−) | 256 (−) | 1024 (−) | 16 (−) |
W311O | 1024 (−) | - | 128 (−) | - | 512 (−) | - | 256 (−) | 1024 (−) | - | 2 (−) |
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
| ||||||||||
PA 01 | - | - | - | 256 (−) | 512 (−) | 256 (−) | 256 (−) | 256 (−) | 1024 (−) | 32 (−) |
PA 124 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 128 (−) |
Enterobacter aerogenes
| ||||||||||
ATCC13048 | 1024 (−) | 512 (−) | - | 512 (−) | - | - | 128 (−) | - | - | 4 (32) |
EA-CM64 | 256 (−) | - | - | 512 (−) | 1024 (−) | - | 256 (−) | 512 (−) | 1024 (−) | 256 (−) |
EA3 | - | - | - | - | 256 (−) | 1024 (−) | 128 (−) | - | - | 256 (−) |
EA27 | 256 (−) | 512 (−) | 512 (−) | 512 (1024) | 512 (−) | 1024 (−) | 512 (−) | 512 (−) | - | 32 (−) |
EA289 | 512 (−) | 1024 (−) | 1024 (−) | 256 (−) | 512 (−) | 1024 (−) | 512 (−) | 512 (−) | 512 (−) | 64 (−) |
EA298 | 1024 (−) | - | 1024 (−) | 512 (−) | 1024 (−) | 1024 (−) | 128 (−) | 512 (−) | 512 (−) | 128 |
Providencia stuartii
| ||||||||||
NEA16 | 1024 (−) | 512 (−) | 1024 (−) | 1024 | 1024 (−) | - | 1024 (−) | 1024 (−) | 1024 (−) | 32 (256) |
ATCC29916 | 512 (−) | 512 (−) | - | - | - | - | 256 (−) | 1024 (−) | - | 16 (256) |
PS2636 | 256 (−) | - | - | - | - | 256 (−) | 256 (−) | 256 (−) | - | 16 (256) |
PS299645 | 1024 (−) | 512 (−) | - | - | 256 (−) | 512 (−) | 512 (−) | 512 (−) | - | 64 (−) |
Klebsiella pneumoniae
| ||||||||||
ATCC11296 | 512 (−) | 512 (−) | 1024 (−) | 1024 (−) | 1024 (−) | 1024 (−) | 512 (−) | 1024 (−) | - | 8 (256) |
KP55 | 512 (−) | 512 (−) | - | 256 (−) | 512 (−) | - | 256 (−) | 1024 (−) | 256 (−) | 32 (256) |
KP63 | 1024 (−) | 1024 (−) | - | 1024 (−) | 512 (−) | - | - | 1024 (−) | 1024 (−) | 32 (−) |
K24 | 1024 (−) | 512 (−) | 1024 (−) | 1024 (−) | 1024 (−) | - | 512 (−) | 512 (−) | - | 64 (256) |
K2 | 1024 (−) | 256 (−) | - | 1024 (−) | 512 (−) | 512 (−) | - | - | - | 8 (256) |
Enterobacter cloacae
| ||||||||||
ECCI69 | - | 1024 (−) | 1024 (−) | 1024 (−) | 1024 (−) | - | 1024 (−) | 512 (−) | 1024 (−) | - |
BM47 | - | - | - | - | 1024 (−) | - | 512 (−) | 1024 (−) | 1024 (−) | 256 (−) |
BM67 | 512 (−) | 512 (−) | 1024 (−) | 512 (−) | 256 (−) | - | 256 (−) | 1024 (−) | - | - |
BM94 | 1024 (−) | 512 (−) | 1024 (−) | 512 (−) | 512 (−) | - | 512 (−) | 1024 (−) | - | 128 (−) |
Staphyloccocus aureus
| Ciprofloxacin | |||||||||
ATCC25923 | 512 (−) | 256 (−) | - | 256 (1024) | 512 (−) | 1024 (−) | 256 (−) | 256 (−) | 128 (1024) | 2 (8) |
MRSA 3 | - | - | - | - | 1024 (−) | - | - | - | - | 32 (128) |
MRSA 4 | 256 (−) | 256 (−) | - | 128 (1024) | 512 (−) | - | 256 (−) | 256 (−) | 128 (512) | 64 (128) |
MRSA 6 | - | 128 (−) | - | 256 (−) | 1024 (−) | 512 (−) | 512 (−) | 256 (−) | 256 (−) | 64 (128) |
MRSA 8 | - | 128 (−) | - | 64 (512) | 128 (−) | 1024 (−) | 512 (−) | 256 (−) | 64 (512) | 16 (64) |
MRSA 11 | 1024 (−) | - | - | 512 (−) | 1024 (−) | 1024 (−) | 1024 (−) | 512 (−) | 512 (−) | 128 (256) |
MRSA 12 | - | 128 (−) | - | 256 (−) | 1024 (−) | 1024 (−) | 512 (−) | 256 (−) | 256 (−) | 32 (32) |