Introduction
Inflammation and redox dysregulation in mood disorders
Inflammation and redox dysregulation in schizophrenia
Inflammation and redox dysregulation in Alzheimer's disease
The association between psychiatric disease, dementia, and auto-immunity
Activated circulating monocytes in psychiatric disorders
Activated microglia in psychiatric disorders
Working mechanisms of psychotropic medications
Working mechanisms of aspirin
Aspirin and the suppression of activated cells of the mononuclear phagocyte system
Aspirin and the suppression of O&NS pathways
Author, year; study | Hypotheses | Study design | Agent and dosage | Sample | Psychiatric measure | Presentation of results | Key finding |
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Sturmer, 1996; EBSHP | ASA use affected decline of cognitive function | Cohort study | ASA: <1, 1 to 2 and, >2 tablets/day ASA effect hypothesized to be more dependent on frequency than on dose, mean daily dose was not used | 3,631 NII >65 years old; 2,773 at 3-year follow-up, and 2,023 at 6-year follow-up | SPMSQ, EBMT | OR | No significant effect seen. Modest benefit of ASA, especially with intermittent use, on decline of cognitive function |
Henderson, 1997 | ASA prevented dementia or cognitive impairment | Community survey. Two-wave: cross-sectional at 2 wave; longitudinal from 1to 2 wave | ASA yes/no (unknown dose) | 1,045 participants 70 years old at baseline; 588 people with cognitive assessment at both waves | CIE = MMSE, SLMT, NART | Mean and SD | Cross-sectional: no significant difference in cognitive tests. Longitudinal: no differences in cognitive decline or incidence of dementia |
Stewart, 1997; BLSA | Reduced risk of AD in ASA users | Longitudinal | ASA yes/no; NSAIDs yes/no; acetaminophen yes/no | 1,686 participants in baseline study | BIMCT, MMES, Immediate and Delayed Cued Recall, BNT, CVF, TMT A and B, Clock Drawing and other constructions, CESDS, PFAQ, NART | RR | Non-significant AD risk ratio for ASA users. Duration of ASA use and the risk of AD were not significantly associated |
Peacock, 1999; ARIC study | Association of regular use of NSAIDs or ASA with cognitive function | Cross-sectional cohort study | NSAIDs yes/no; ASA yes/no | 13,153 participants, 48 to 67 years old | Delayed word recall test, WAIS-R digit symbol subtest, WFT | Mean | Weak negative association (<0.1) between current ASA and word fluency & recall. No association of lifetime ASA and cognitive index scores. ASA treatment for 8 years weakly associated with better word fluency |
Landi, 2003 | Relationship between NSAIDs and AD | Cross-sectional | ASA yes/no; NSAIDs yes/no | 2,708 participants admitted to home care programs | CPS | Mean and SD | NSAID users had a nearly 50% lower risk of cognitive impairment. For subjects using ASA, the risk estimated was similar; 67% decreased risk of cognitive impairment associated with non-ASA NSAID use |
Nilsson, 2003; OCTO-Twin | ASA protective for AD | Cross-sectional and longitudinal | Low-dose ASA (75 mg/day + 3500 mg/week) 250, 500 mg | 702 participants >80 years old, 91 with dementia at baseline; 88 developed dementia during observational period; 315 people at follow-up | DSM-III-R criteria for dementia, NINCDS/ARDRA criteria for AD, NINDS/AIREN criteria for vascular dementia, MMSE | β | At 9-year follow-up, significant association between ASA and lower frequency of AD and all dementia; significantly more likely that intact cognitive function was maintained in those taking ASA. Use of low-dose ASA alone did not affect the risk ratio |
Cornelius, 2004; Kungsholmen Project | Association between ASA and NSAIDs with AD and overall dementia, and influence of apoE ε4 | Longitudinal cohort study | ASA 75 to 500 mg/day yes/no; NSAIDs yes/no. Differences in dosages not considered | 1,301 subjects >75 years old dementia-free at baseline; 987 at 1*follow-up (314 died); 650 at 2*follow-up (281 died) | DSM III-R criteria for dementia, Hachinski scale for differential diagnoses AD versus VaD versus Mixed dementia, MMSE, neurological and psychiatric examinations, neuropsychological assessment | Incidence | 6-year increased AD risk in the ASA/apoE ε4 negative group |
Jonker, 2004; LASA | Protective effect of ASA on cognitive decline in older people | Community-based study; ?case-control | NSAIDs yes/no; ASA <100 mg yes/no | 612 participants, 62 to 85 years old | MMSE, AVLT, coding task | OR | 3-year follow-up of decline in episodic memory (immediate recall) for ASA users was reduced by more than three times. Effect of ASA was significant only in >75-year-olds |
Shepherd, 2004; SOP Study | ASA protective against AD | ASA yes/no | 151 NII, >75 years old, dementia-free | MMSE, Logical Memory and Similarities subtest from WAIS-R, BNT, visuo-perceptual abilities from the JLOT, COWAT | Mean and SD | ASA use was a significant positive predictor of performance on the Logical Memory test | |
Arvanitakis, 2008; ROS | Relation between NSAIDs/AD, change in cognition, and AD pathology | Longitudinal | ASA yes/no; non-ASA NSAIDs yes/no | 1,019 Catholic clergy, mean age 75 years old, dementia-free | As reported previously [12] | HR | At 1 year-no apparent relation of ASA to incident AD, change in cognition, or AD pathology |
Szekely, 2008; CHCS | Association between NSAIDs, ASA, and acetaminophen with dementia and AD | Prospective | ASA yes/no; NSAIDs yes/no; acetaminophen yes/no. No dosage reported | 3229 participants >65 years old, dementia-free 1228 ASA users | NINCDS/ARDRA criteria for AD, ADDTC criteria for VaD, Mixed dementia diagnosis, 3MSE, MRI | OR | At 10 years, risk of AD, VaD, and all-cause dementia was not associated with use of ASA |
Almeida, 2010 | ASA decreased prevalence of depression and cognitive impairment | Retrospective | Not reported | 5,556 men 69 to 87 years old | GDS, MMSE | OR | ASA not associated with lower OR of depression or cognitive impairment in >75-year-old men. Discontinuation of ASA between the two assessments related to greater OR of depression than non-users |
Pasco, 2010; GOS | ASA reduced the risk for depression; ASA + statin reduced risk of de novo depression | Case-control study, retrospective cohort analysis | ASA yes/no | 386 women >50 - years old. 1* MDD >50 years old versus no MDD. No prior MDD, followed up from baseline or time of exposure to ASA, until 1* MDD or 10-year follow-up | SCID I RV-NP | OR and HR | OR for MDD in the ASA group was 0.18, P = 0.1 The prevalence of exposure to statins + ASA was lower for women with MDD; OR for MDD was 0.15 (95% CI 0.03 to 0.65, P = 0.01). Exposure to statins + ASA was associated with a reduced risk for MDD |
Waldstein, 2010; BLSA | Relation between ASA and NSAIDs and age-related change in cognitive functions | Cross-sectional and longitudinal | ASA yes/no; NSAIDs yes/no | 2300 dementia-free | Digits Forward and Backward portions of WAIS-R, CVLT, BVRT, TMT, Letter & Category Fluency, BNT, MMSE, BIMCT | SE | Cross-sectional: use of ASA related to better average performance across testing sessions on measures of verbal and visual learning, and memory and global mental status. Longitudinal: ASA related to greater prospective decline on BIMCT and the BVRT. Significant effects of ASA use were noted for the BVRT, the CVLT learning slope and short free recall, and the MMSE, and indicated better average levels of function for ASA users |
Clinical population
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Ketterer, 1996; Coronary angiography | Regular ASA prophylactic therapy for IHD associated with emotional distress | ASA 80 to 325 mg | 174 men | CMS, Framingham Type A Scale, KSSFC | ASA associated with less depression and anxiety or worry on the KSSFC | ||
Stanford, 1999; HF or previouS OHT or CB | Usual schedule of drug therapy maintained | 135 participants | Profile of Mood States | Mean and SEM | More positive mood in ASA groups due to less fatigue. Tension and TMD in ASA patients just failed to reach criterion for statistical significance | ||
Broe; 2000; SOP Study dementia | Case-control | 80% on ASA 175 mg; no high dose | 163 NII >75 years old with different dementias categories, and 373 control subjects | NINCDS-ADRDA criteria for AD | Inverse association between ASA and AD, but not other dementia, not dosage-related | ||
Mendlewicz, 2006; treatment-resistant DP | Accelerating effect of ASA in combination with fluoxetine | Open-label, uncontrolled | Treated openly during 4 weeks with ASA 160 mg/day in addition to their current antidepressant treatment | 21 participants underwent >4 weeks SSRI | HDRS | Mean and SD | SSRI + ASA showed a global response rate of 52%. Remission was achieved in 43% of the total sample and 82% of the responder sample. In the responder group, a significant improvement was seen within week 1, which was sustained until day 28 |
Stolk, 2010; bipolar disorder | NSAIDs and glucocorticoids ameliorate bipolar symptoms | ASA 30 or 80 mg/day or ASA >80 mg/kg or non-selective NSAIDs or COX-2i or GCs + lithium | 5145 participants receiving lithium | Incidence density of medication events (change in medication or increase of >30% of the current dose) | Incidence density ratio | Subjects receiving ASA 30 or 80 mg/day were 17% less likely to have a medication event; with >80 mg/kg ASA, non-selective NSAIDs, COX-2i, and GCs were not significant, but non- selective NSAIDs and GCs significantly increased medication events |
Author, year; study | Study design | Agent/dosage | Sample | Psych measure | Presentation of results | Key finding |
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Non-clinical population | ||||||
Dinnerstein, 1970 | DB-RCT | ASA 600 mg + placebo 'energizer'/'tranquilizer' versus lactose 600 mg + placebo 'energizer'/'tranquilizer' | 80 healthy male college students | CMS | ASA had no direct and fixed effect on mood, but acts to modulate the effect of placebo or other contextual variables | |
Lieberman, 1987 | DB-RCT | 2* to 6*sessions: caffeine 64 mg, or ASA 800 mg, or caffeine 64 mg + ASA 800 mg, or caffeine 128 mg + ASA 800 mg, or placebo in Latin-square design | 20 healthy men 18 to 35 years old, caffeine intake <400 mg/day, non-smokers | 6 sessions PMS, visual analog mood scales, NVMS, SSS, and performance tests | Mean and SEM | Caffeine alone and caffeine +ASA improved vigilance, self-reported efficiency and mood compared with ASA alone and placebo |
Kang, 2007; Women's Health Study | Cohort study within a DB-RCT | ASA 100 mg or placebo on alternate days | 6,377 women >65 years old | TICS-M, immediate and delayed recalls of the EBMT and delayed recall of the TICS-M, 10-word list and category fluency (naming as many animals as possible in 1 minute) | Mean and SD | ASA users did not differ in overall performance in any of the cognitive assessments, from the 1* assessment (after 5.6 years) to the 3* (after a mean 9.6 years), or in their average cognitive decline during 3 to 6 years of follow-up. ASA users performed better in category fluency, particularly in the final assessment |
Kudielka, 2007 | DB-RCT | ASA 100 mg, or propranolol 80 mg, or ASA 100 mg + propranolol 80 mg, or placebo | 73 healthy subjects | TSST. Cortisol from six saliva samples taken before and after the stress exposure | Mean and SD | 5 days: groups did not differ in their cortisol responses |
Clinical population
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Clarke, 2003; VITAL trial collaborative group; dementia or MCI | DB-RC; 4-week placebo-controlled run-in period before randomization + 12-week treatment | ASA 81 mg, or placebo AND folic acid 2 mg + vitamin B12 1 mg, or placebo AND vitamin E 500 mg + vitamin C 200 mg, or placebo in 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design | 149 NII, 12 to 26 patients MMSE score or <27 patients TICS-M score, naïve to study medications. Follow-up: 137 for biochemical outcomes, 128 for cognitive outcomes | TICS-M, MMSE, ADAS | Median percentage reduction | 12 weeks of ASA was effective in reducing biochemical factors (thromboxane) associated with cognitive impairment in people at risk of dementia. No effect of treatment on cognitive function |
AD2000, 2008; Alzheimer's disease | OL-RCT | ASA 75 mg yes/no | 310 NII | MMSE, behavioral symptoms | Mean and SD | At 3 -year follow-up: no differences in scores, significantly higher risk of bleeding |
Price, 2008; asymptomatic atherosclerosis | DB-RCT | ASA 100 mg or placebo | 3350 participants 50-75 years old | Summary cognitive score = tests of memory, executive function, non-verbal reasoning, mental flexibility, and information processing | Mean and SD | At 5-year follow-up: no differences |
Gałecki, 2009; first depressive episode | OL-RCT | fluoxetine 20 mg, or fluoxetine 20 mg + ASA 150 mg | 77 participants | HDRS | No differences in HDRS between fluoxetine group and fluoxetine + ASA group | |
Laan, 2010; schizophrenic spectrum disorders | DB-RCT | ASA 1000 mg/day or placebo adjuvant to antipsychotic + pantoprazole 40 mg/day | 70 adults PANSS ≥60, 2 items ≥4, illness duration <10 years. 2-week placebo run-in period, and only those who achieved over 80% compliance were randomized | PANSS | Mean and SD | Adjuvant ASA reduced overall psychopathology and positive symptoms at 3 months. No significant results in other subscales. ASA had greater effect on overall psychopathology in individuals with more altered immune function. ASA significantly reduced overall psychopathology in individuals with the lowest Th1:Th2 ratios |