The Indian subcontinent has the greatest richness and highest diversity in the flora of flowering medicinal plants. Most of the world’s population is mainly basically relying on therapeutic plants, the most extraordinary source is lifesaving drugs. About 80% of the world population takes an interest in the utilization of customary medication founded on plant materials, the therapeutic plants assume a powerful part in human medical care. They stay to be a significant useful help for working on the soundness of individuals and in the better treatment of several diseases.
Characterization of the CrPLE
The phytochemicals present in methanolic leaf extracts of the
C. roseus plants had exposed the existence of seven phytochemicals for example alkaloids, carbohydrates, flavonoids, glycosides, phenols, steroids as well as tannins indicating that the rich presence of auxiliary metabolites. This is in understanding that of prior investigations by different workers [
21,
22,
40,
41,
63]. Comparable phytoconstituents present in the raw extracts were recorded in the
C. roseus with different plant parts like leaves by Govindasamy and Srinivasan [
17] and Wagay et al. [
63], stem by Pham et al. [
49], flower by Govindasamy and Srinivasan [
17], root by Govindasamy and Srinivasan [
17], and stem bark by Rose and Priya [
55].
Catharanthus roseus is one of the significant therapeutic plants, very much perceived in Ayurveda and other customary treatment systems. This is recognized for its antitumor, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and antimutagenic effects [
40,
41]. As per Govindasamy and Srinivasan [
17], the antibacterial, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial activities of the plant concentrates are due to the presence of alkaloids. Accordingly, this plant portion of
C. roseus displayed the presence of carbohydrates as well as phenols as a typical phytochemical.
Catharanthus roseus is notable for its pharmacological significance as it creates a wide spectrum (≥130) of terpenoid indole alkaloids (TIAs) whereas just
C. roseus is known for creating such a wide scope of alkaloids and they are extremely interesting to be delivered by some other plants in such amounts as produced in
C. roseus. These alkaloids contain vinblastine and vincristine generally utilized in anticancer chemotherapies [
60].
The retention factor (Rf) value of the plant extracts ranged from 0.77 to 4.47 and colors fluctuated from brown to green. Yellow spots were recognized in the unrefined methanol extracts [
63]. The therapeutic cost of monoterpene indole alkaloids (MIAs) such as 3′,4′-anhydrovinblastine, in addition to it as well as the substance intricacy has invigorated broad endeavors to comprehend the biochemical and molecular pathways engaged with their biosynthesis in the
C. roseus plant source [
25]. The methanolic extract of
C. roseus contains the greatest elevated Rf value (0.70) and exhibited greyish color which demonstrates the existence of vindoline [
22]. By looking at the specific bands and Rf values obtained by Kale et al. [
22], we have determined the bands obtained from our present study. The methanolic extract of
C. roseus comprises the Rf value of 0.77 which compares to the presence of greyish color demonstrating the occurrence of vindoline. The methanolic extract of
C. roseus plant produces the typical light blue color under UV light (365 nm) and contrasted colors oscillated from brown to green observed under visible light. This is in agreement with the earlier discoveries by Nisar et al. [
40,
41]. It is very utilized in biochemical investigation, for example, partition or seclusion of plant metabolites from the methanolic extracts of
C. roseus plants.
The absorption maxima in UV-spectrophotometric investigation were recorded at 250 nm aided in simple examination employing HPLC analysis. HPLC examination showed that several noticeable mixtures contained in the unrefined extract were available in the methanolic fraction, in which catechin and caffeic acid were recognized as significant. i.e., the CrPLE of catechin and caffeic acid were present in the low concentration when contrasted with the principles. In contrast to the findings of Goboza et al. [
16], the CrPLE of caffeic acid was 0.614 which is a low concentration when contrasted with our outcomes (1.807). This showed that we have obtained the results screening the threefold concentration of caffeic acid in the CrPLE to that of Goboza et al. [
16].
HPLC chromatogram of the methanolic extract disclosed the higher dosages of the selected phenolic compounds. Polyphenolic compounds are available in plant sources as optional metabolites as well as their incorporation in human food has been documented to have amazing medical advantages. Polyphenolic compounds can search for reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) in natural frameworks. A measurable polyphenolic evaluation of the different concentrates of
C. roseus uncovered that methanolic extract was the top dissolvable to remove the phenolic compounds. These discoveries forms concurrence as per past examinations by Rasool et al. [
54] and Kabesh et al. [
21] that reported high polyphenolic content and antioxidant action are available in methanolic extract of
C. roseus. Thus, the utilization of therapeutic plant sources in the treatment of several diseases is credited with the existence of chemical ingredients such as phenolic substances and alkaloids in
C. roseus that have various attributes which add to the helpful impacts of plants. This proposes that the biomolecules acquired from the CrPLE may perhaps act as oxidizing/ reducing agents/ specialists utilized for different applications. Hence, the current study was valuable and supportive for the uses of medications, plans, restorative, and possible proposals for the assembling of therapeutic agents and agricultural products.
Medicinal practices of the biologically synthesized CrPLE
Drug plants assume a critical part in the revelation of new medications utilized in flow medication and tracked down a powerful medication for different diseases. Antimicrobial susceptibility studies were directed against gram-negative (−) bacteria such as
Escherichia coli, gram-positive (+) bacteria for example
Staphylococcus aureus, and fungi for instance
Candida albicans and
Aspergillus niger. The methanolic leaf extract of the
C. roseus (CrPLE) revealed strong inhibitory activity against the microorganisms such as the gram-negative (−) bacteria –
E. coli, the gram-positive (+) bacteria –
S. aureus, and fungi –
C. albicans and
A. niger. Tested CrPLE disclosed intense antimicrobial action compared to all organisms. The zones of inhibition showed moderate to highest inhibitory activity against the methanolic leaf extracts from the
C. roseus plants and exhibited more than 50% inhibitory action towards these mentioned organismal strains. Consequently, the methanolic leaf extract of
C. roseus plants unveiled the highest antimicrobial activity and established fatal outcome for
S. aureus at various doses. Consequently, our study has shown that the CrPLE displayed the most noteworthy antimicrobial activities such as antibacterial and antifungal actions, and hence, could be helpful in natural applications. Accordingly, alcoholic extract of
C. roseus could be utilized as a likely antimicrobial source [
15,
17,
22,
48,
49,
63]. Similar kinds of results were obtained by Khalil [
24] from the investigation of the antimicrobial action from ethanol leaf extract of
C. roseus towards some human pathogenic microorganisms (
S. aureus and
E. coli) as well as pathogenic fungi (
C. albicans) with slight variation. The sturdiest inhibition movement of the leaf extract was detected towards the
S. aureus (15 mm zone) at 100 mg/ml of leaf extricate antimicrobial action of this plant.
Catharanthus roseus is an important therapeutic plant source for drugs since the majority of bacterial microbes are creating opposition against large numbers of presently accessible antimicrobial medications. Plants have ended up being critical normal assets for compelling chemotherapeutic specialists and offering a wide range of action with more prominent accentuation on the preventive activity. The anti-cancer and antimicrobial properties of
C. roseus have been examined the microorganisms such as
Pseudomonas aeruginosa NCIM 2036,
Salmonella typhimurium NCIM 2501, and
Staphylococcus aureus NCIM 5021. So, extracts from these plant leaves can be utilized as a prophylactic specialist for a large number of pestilence infections [
45,
48,
49,
63].
Because of the attribution of optional metabolites of different synthetic compounds existing in the
C. roseus plant material either separately, the antimicrobial action found in this current study. The discovery of a strong cure from the plant beginning will be an incredible movement in microbial contamination treatments. This study offers help to the plant’s customary and elective use against different diseases and infections. Additionally, the utilization of regular items has been urged because of less or no aftereffects, cost adequacy, and improvement of protection from traditional engineered antibiotics. Henceforth, this study holds significance in involving therapeutic plants as an elective hotspot for treating different diseases [
21]. Supplementary examinations are expected to detach the bioactive constituents answerable for the noticed antimicrobial movement. Nonetheless, extra examinations utilizing the carcinoma cell line are important to know the impacts of CrPLE answerable for the cytotoxic action.
Cytotoxicity assay has turned into a significant examination for showing a compound of pharmacological significance. The methanolic extracts produced from
C. roseus plant leaves presented a cytotoxic interaction against MDA-MB-231 cell lines. The samples of CrPLE for 24 h treatment showed an IC
50 value of 57.64 μg/ml inhibition in MDA-MB-231 cells. The expansion of cell demise with an expansion in the grouping of test intensifies connotes that the methanolic extracts of the
C. roseus plants were seen as successful. Further, the differences in the IC
50s of the CrPLE
in vitro were reflected in the effectiveness of the extracts in the MDA-MB-231 cell line model. Bioactive components of the genus
Catharanthus have a place overwhelmingly with the seven phytochemical classes that are not able to display cytotoxicity [
49]. Perhaps, the viability of the plant concentrates might be affected by the auxiliary metabolites present in the digestion cycle of the dynamic mixtures.
It exhibited that the n-butanol fraction confined the most elevated degrees of saponins and phenolics, and had the most grounded cancer prevention agent limit among the tried CrPLE [
49]. The n-butanol fraction additionally required solid cytotoxic exercises
in vitro on a wider scope of malignant growth cell lines including A2780 (ovarian), H460 (lung), A431 (skin), MIA PaCa-2 (pancreas), Du145 (prostate), HT29 (colon), MCF-7 (breast), BE2-C (neuroblastoma), SJ-G2, U87 and SMA (glioblastoma) at small amounts (GI50 values of 5.2–21.0 μg/mL) [
49]. Like the consequences of n-butanol portion techniques, our methanolic acquired obtained from the CrPLE is likewise a rich wellspring of bioactive mixtures that can be confined for their possible use as antimicrobial medications or antitumor remedial specialists.
Catharanthus roseus is also likewise has a perceived as “magic plant”, “flower of immortality” by the Germans, “the flower of death” by the Italians, the “violet of the sorcerers” by the French, and “an emblem of friendship”. Henceforth, the plant parts (aerial and underground) removed are being utilized compared to a few significant disorders [
49,
56].
From apoptotic examination by flow cytometry, CrPLE might conceivably change the apoptotic protein articulation and activate apoptosis in MDA-MB-231 cells. Comparable sort results were acquired from examinations directed by Widowati et al. [
66].
Catharanthus roseus comprises a scope of dimeric indole alkaloids with huge antitumor exercises. These alkaloids have been originated to have programmed cell death-actuating action towards tumor cells
in vitro and
in vivo facilitated by nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathways, in which DNA injury and mitochondrial brokenness assume significant parts. In this manner, the acceptance of programmed cell death through cathachunine occurred through a ROS-dependent mitochondria-mediated intrinsic pathway as opposed to an outward pathway and was managed by the Bcl-2 protein family. It applied a powerful antitumor impact on human leukemia cells by the enlistment of programmed cell death and employing an inborn trial [
64,
65].
Therapeutic plants are utilized in the conventional treatment of individuals in India for quite a long while because of homegrown items with fewer aftereffects and are financially savvy.
Catharanthus roseus plants comprise different alkaloids, carbohydrates, saponin, flavonoids and phenolics, and phytochemicals such as vincristine, raubasin, vinblastine, vincolinine, vinacardine, leurocristine, catharanthamine, etc.. It had revealed the existence of different pharmacological activities for instance anticancer, antidiabetic, antiulcer, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antihyperglycemic, antihypertensive, antidiabetic, and wound healing, etc. [
43].
Catharanthus roseus is a significant evergreen therapeutic spice utilized for the most part for therapy of malignant growth of cancer and diabetics. Researchers have gathered data on the conventional purposes, phytochemical ingredients, and pharmacological possessions of plants. Along these lines, they have perceived the well-being-advancing activities of this versatile plant and it could likewise give hints to the disclosure of a novel principal substance of drug significance [
29].
The inferences of the study affirmed the remedial strength of C. roseus plant’s roots, stems, leaves, and flowers can be utilized in conventional medication and progressed pharmacology, and gives the promising lead to the revelation of intense antimicrobial mixtures in helpful and dietary use all around the world. The outcome of the current examinations comprises strong proof to approve folkloric utilization of these C. roseus plants as a solution for different diseases. Consequently, the current study has been valuable and accommodating for the utilization of drugs, therapeutic and expected applications, and in the assembling of different herbicides, pesticides, and agricultural fields.