Background
Plaque removal by manual or powered toothbrushing is still the most effective preventive method to control gingivitis manifestation and caries lesion stagnation or progression [
1]. This cornerstone of oral hygiene is supported by lifelong local applications of different fluoride formulations and, when needed, of various antibacterial agents.
To motivate consumer’s oral hygiene behaviour and to enhance the patient’s compliance towards the recommended tooth cleaning efficacy, new toothbrush designs are permanently developed and tested. In contrast to the past, no “standard” toothbrush is dominating the market today. Preferences concerning handle configuration and brushhead design differ widely among preventive caregivers and consumers. Different age groups, patient’s disease profiles, patients in special needs etc. require individual toothbrush models and, consequently, individual brushing techniques in the frame of contemporary personalized preventive medicine. New toothbrush models for this various target groups should remove plaque equally efficient or better than their predecessors and, therefore, their plaque removal efficacy needs to be tested prior to manufacture.
The ultimate goal of such testing would be the outcome of clinical testing under field conditions by assessing full mouth plaque removal and gingivitis scores. This is, however, very time consuming, rather expensive and difficult to standardize for later comparative meta-analyses [
1]. Therefore, the assessment of in vitro tooth cleaning efficacy became a real alternative to clinical trials in testing many different designs and action modalities of manual and powered toothbrushes. Since 1972 several test environments were developed to test manual and powered toothbrushes prior to manufacture or clinical testing. Arnold and Trost were the first to introduce a simple brushing machine using horizontal movements on acrylic tooth models covered with a water-based dye [
2]. A more sophisticated equipment by Nygaard-Østby et al. was primarily developed to measure inter-proximal penetration of the toothbrush bristles by using a typewriter colour ribbon band to simulate inter-proximal space during horizontal or vertical brushing movements with brushing forces between 2.5 and 10.0 N [
3]. Rawls et al. proposed static and dynamic tests using recommended brushing techniques on blue ethyl cellulose coated typodont models at an angulation of 45°. Moistened toothbrushes were applied with weight controlled force between 1.0 and 10.0 N [
4]. The interproximal penetration of bristles was controlled and measured by a high-speed video camera and a colour removal index. The disadvantage of the experimental approach was the colour coating of plastic teeth not simulating the adherence of plaque biofilms on natural teeth. Therefore, Volpenhein et al. developed a plaque simulating red coating based on ethyl ester and copolymer. Manual toothbrushes were moved in two angulations (45° and 90º) and three directions (horizontal, vertical and rotating) over typodont models [
5]. Cleaning efficacy was assessed by the coating removal at a 10fold magnification of plastic teeth. According to the variability of the experimental protocol, this device was the first robot-like in vitro approach.
The first 6-axis robot was used to simulate the 3-dimensional brushing patterns of powered toothbrushes. The typodont models were stained with a water-based colour and brushed for 1 minute. A modified plaque index was used by two blinded examiners to score the results [
6,
7]. The tooth cleaning efficacy assessment was later improved by a computerized vision system [
8]. Recently, the robot test of brush head wear was used to assess the area covered with plaque substitute by a 3 D laser system [
9]. Since a decade the brushing machine of Imfeld et al. is a well-established method of assessing in vitro tooth cleaning efficacy of manual and electric toothbrushes [
10‐
12]. Test brushes were mounted on an automated brushing machine, which moved over a custom-made tooth model of a posterior or anterior segment. All black tooth surfaces were coated with white titanium oxide in ethanol to simulate complete plaque accumulation. Tooth surfaces reappearing black after brushing were regarded as cleaned, digitized and planimetrically analyzed.
The Navy-Plaque-Index was introduced by Elliot et al. to support the assessment of plaque in clinical studies by sectioning the buccal tooth surface into six areas (three gingival, and each one mesial, distal and incisal area) [
13]. Based on the need to test oral hygiene products the Navy-Plaque-Index was modified by Rustogi et al. by adding three additional zones above the gumline and below the equatorial line [
14]. Claydon and Addy modified this refined index by using planimetry for the examination process [
15]. After plaque revelation standardized clinical photographs were used to score all teeth buccally and orally with 576 planimetrical fields per subject. This resulted in better differentiation of plaque removal per tooth. Therefore, this planimetrical index is now well established, because of the reproducibility, blinded assessment and safe documentation.
In summary, there are sophisticated in vitro tooth cleaning methodologies, however, none of them have been clinically validated. And there are well established clinical index systems assessing reproducible plaque scores. It was, therefore, the aim of the present study to bridge the gap between the clinical performance and plaque removing outcome of tooth brushing and the in vitro simulation by the extraordinary programme flexibility of a six-axis robot.
Discussion
Laboratory testing of cleaning efficacy of different toothbrush designs is essential for the development of new prototypes as well as for the consumers interest in improving their individual oral hygiene. Therefore, any laboratory testing should be as close as possible to the real clinical conditions. In this sense, the robot testing approach has many advantages. This includes the programming (“teaching the robot”) and standardization of any brushing movement, the calibration of different brushing forces and brushing time. Planimetrical plaque index systems are applicable, and exploratory tests with 5 runs or statistical valid tests with 7 runs per test brush, per test movement etc. are possible. However, the clinical validation of the rather complex robot testing programme is a prerequisite for any clinical relevant conclusion concerning the plaque-biofilm controlling efficacy of toothbrushes. It was, therefore, the primary aim of the study to develop and validate a robot toothbrushing test in two steps.
The first step was the standardization of most recommended toothbrush movements of a common brushing force and brushing time and of a sensitive planimetrical plaque assessment index system applicable in the clinical and robot setting. Then, the translation of all this clinical parameters to the robot programme followed.
The second step was the comparison of clinical and robot plaque removal efficacy and the statistical approval whether the two data sets do correlate to declare the robot clinically validated.
The number of subjects was within the requirements for clinical toothbrush tests according to the ADA Acceptance Program Guidelines [
20]. The used brushing force of 3.5 N was slightly higher than the mean brushing force of uninstructed adults of 2.3 N (+/− 0.7) but within the range of an acceptable force of 4.0 N [
21,
22]. The brushing time of 20 s buccally and 20 s orally per two sextants would sum-up in a total brushing time of 120 s for the complete dentition. This is slightly above a mean brushing time of uninstructed subjects of 96 s +/− 36 s [
22].
All in vitro tests developed so far are capable to measure special aspects of plaque removal like inter-proximal penetration, brushing forces, brushing time and brushing technique, but lack the simulation of oral biofilms on tooth surfaces [
2,
3,
7,
10]. None of the robot testing methodologies developed so far could satisfactorily reproduce the complex human tooth cleaning behaviour of rather sticky plaque biofilms.
According to the most comprehensive study of Claydon et al. of comparative professional plaque removal (using 8 branded toothbrushes) there was a clear tooth-specific and site-specific removal efficacy, but no significant differences between upper and lower arches [
23]. Consequently, in the present study two sextants of lower teeth including incisors, canines, premolars and molars were postulated to be representative for the whole dentition. The left lower canine and the right lower wisdom tooth were present but not scored to maintain the interproximal planimetrical fields. Claydon et al. did also show that there were no significant differences between the 8 toothbrushes. It supports also “the conclusion that the user is by far the most significant variable” [
23].
The tooth-specificity and site-specificity of plaque accumulation and removal is caused by the size and morphology of teeth and by anterior vs. posterior teeth. Individual patterns may also be influenced by eugnathic vs. dysgnathic dentitions. The mean values of plaque removal tooth by tooth and site by site in the clinical study arm corresponded significantly with the mean values of the robot arm. However, the cleaning efficacy is significantly higher after robot brushing compared to clinical brushing. Therefore, the robot programme avoids any individual adaptation of brushing movements and brushing force different from the set standard. To test the brushing efficacy as such, the robot and the standardized programme seems to be superior to clinical testing as long as the toothbrush head design, the number and size of filaments, their stiffness and direction is concerned.
Abrasion, attrition and erosion, the tooth wear, is physically different from gentle brushing actions. So, a toothbrush is aimed at brushing (not abrading, not eroding) tooth biofilms partly away to control plaque accumulation. Rosema et al. have recently documented that “dentifrice did not show an added effect on instant plaque removal efficacy” using new and used manual toothbrushes [
24]. These results and other clinical studies [
23] support the approach in the present study not to use dentifrice while searching for plaque or simulated plaque removal. The robot toothbrushing technology can be employed with gingival masks simulating the permanent and mixed dentitions and, by adapting the planimetrical index, without masks simulating gingival recession [
25]. Recently, the robot testing of children’s toothbrushes in the deciduous dentition has been clinically validated [
26].
Due to short life cycles of new toothbrush models there is a need for quick and reliable testing of different prototypes and new models. One requirement before manufacturing a new toothbrush model is, that it should be at least as effective in plaque removal as its predecessor. Clinical tests normally cannot discriminate small differences between toothbrush models and therefore are not ideal in the early stage of development. The main advantage of the proposed robot test is the reproducibility of the test conditions and the precise data recording. Because of the clinical validation the robot methodology can predict clinical toothbrushing efficacy.
The individual data sets concerning the risk of residual plaque at teeth at risk, sites at risk and planimetrical fields at risk can be accumulated in databanks where they are comparable because of the standardization for many different forms, toothbrush prototypes and models on the market.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. This study was supported by GlaxoSmithKline and M + C-Schiffer.
Authors' contributions
TL did planing the project, transferred clinical data to the robot programme and contributed to writing the manuscript; SS was responsible for the clinical programme; BJ did the statistics; PG was supervising the project and wrote the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.