Background
Methods
Research on toxicity and occurrence data
Approach for risk assessment
Population-based dietary intake assessment and exposure scenarios
Results
Occurrence of BaP and PAH4 in coffee, mate and tea
Matrix/Study/(Country) | N | Mean | Median | P90 | P95 | P99 | Maximum | LODa | % > LODa |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Coffee beans (μg/kg) | |||||||||
This study (Germany) | 26 | 0.03 /0.88 | 0 /0 | 0 /1.85 | 0 /2.28 | 0.68 /4.13 | 0.9 /2.4 | 0.3 | 4 |
[42] (Poland) | 28 | 5.2 /25.2 | 19.5 /33.8 | 13.8 /105.6 | 19.5 / 119.9 | 31.06 /151.3 | 9.8 /162.2 | 0.27 | 50 |
[51] (Brazil) | 8 | 0.5 /3.8 | 0.6/4.3 | 0.5 /4.5 | 0.5 / 4.6 | 0.5 / 4.6 | 0.51 /4.57 | 0.07 | 100 |
[61] (France) | 5 | 0.028/ 0.066 | 0 /0.078 | 0.075 / 0.133 | 0.085/ 0.147 | 0.093 /0.159 | 0.096 / 0.162 | 0.0008 | 40 |
[62] (India) | 4 | 24.6 /79.4 | 0 /0 | 68.8 /222.32 | 83.6 /270.0 | 95.4/308.1 | 98.3 /317.6 | 0.03 | 25 |
[63] (Nigeria) | 4 | 25.7 / 31.1 | 0.03 / 0.73 | 72.04 /85.69 | 87.47 / 103.90 | 99.87 /118.5 | 102.9 / 122.1 | 0.03 | 25 |
[64] (Romania) | 4 | 0.02 / 0.086 | 0.02/ 0.088 | 0.02 /0.1 | 0.02 /0.1 | 0.02 /0.1 | 0.02 /0.1 | 0.02 | 0 |
[19] EFSA | 28 | 2.39 /12 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
[65] (Brazil) | 5 | 0.52 / 1.66 | 0.43 / 1.49 | 1.04 /2.79 | 1.14 /2.91 | 1.211 /3.00 | 1.23 /3.03 | 0.07 | 80 |
[50] (Japan) | 1 | 0.53 / 0.68 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
[44] (Brazil) | 24 | 2.10 /− | 1.49 /− | 4.26 /− | 4.47 /− | 10.67 /− | 12.52 /− | 0.03 | 100 |
[43] (Portugal) | 4 | 0.32 /6.16 | 0.29 / 6.23 | 0.54 / 8.09 | 0.57 /8.41 | 0.59 /8.67 | 0.6 /8.73 | – | – |
[66] (China) | 10 | 0.12 / 2.52 | 0.09 / 2.72 | 0.28 / 4.23 | 0.32 /4.30 | 0.35 /4.37 | 0.36 /4.39 | 0.031 | 100 |
[53] (India) | 3 | 0.33; 2.11 | 0.28; 2.03 | 0.42; 2.23 | 0.44 /2.26 | 0.45 /2.28 | 0.46 /2.28 | – | – |
[35] (France) | 2 | 0 /2.06 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
[67] (USA) | 13 | 7.1 / 186.1 | 4.9 / 143.4 | 13.9 / 334.7 | 15.8 / 236.5 | 18.0 /395.1 | 18.5 / 403.2 | 0.01 | 92 |
[49] (Denmark) | 11 | 0.51 / 2.85 | 0.42 / 2.65 | 0.88 /4.5 | 0.94 /4.8 | 0.99 /5.0 | 1 /5.1 | 0.1 | 100 |
2. Coffee infusion (μg/L) | |||||||||
[41] (Brazil) | 36 | 0.004 / 0.041 | 0 /0.033 | 0.012 / 0.058 | 0.014 / 0.076 | 0.016 /0.095 | 0.016 /0.099 | 0.006 | 11 |
3. Mate leaves (μg/kg) | |||||||||
This study (Germany) | 9 | 6.8 / 39 | 7.6 / 37 | 9.0 / 57 | 9.2 / 65 | 9.4 / 73 | 9.4 / 74 | 0.3 | 100 |
[38] (not specified) | 6 | 90.2 / 446.7 | 81.5 /330 | 150 /770 | 155 /785 | 159 /797 | 160 /800 | – | – |
[37] (Brazil) | 18 | 11.4 / 116.8 | 0 /113.2 | 37.4 / 251.9 | 44.4 / 257.9 | 52.6 / 266.6 | 54.7 / 268.8 | 0.5 | 30 |
[54] (Germany) | 2 | 224.8 / 2117.7 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
[59] (Germany) | 8 | 115.2 / 1075.7 | 88.0 / 517.3 | 201.4 / 1019.1 | 218.9 / 1047.4 | 233.0 / 1070.0 | 236.5 / 1075.7 | 0.01 | 100 |
[68] (Germany) | 3 | 200 /800 | 240 / 940 | 272 / 1308 | 276 / 1354 | 279.2 / 1390.8 | 280 / 1400 | – | – |
[69] (China) | 1 | 542.3 / 2736.8 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
[39] (Brazil) | 12 | 31.7 / 133.1 | 19.8 / 111.5 | 61.2 / 254.0 | 79.0 / 283.9 | 95.2 / 301.0 | 99.3 / 305.3 | – | – |
[36] (Brazil) | 8 | 50 / 355.7 | 40.1 / 319.2 | 52.7 / 368.3 | 53.0 / 383 | 53.2 / 394.8 | 53.3 / 397.7 | – | – |
4. Mate infusion (μg/L) | |||||||||
[12] (Brazil) | 20 | 0.13 / 0.39 | 0.04 / 0.24 | 0.24 / 0.93 | 0.42 / 1.08 | 1.05 / 1.61 | 1.22 / 1.74 | 0.0012 | 100 |
[46] (Brazil) | 11 | 0.014 / 0.038 | 0.012 / 0.033 | 0.014 / 0.059 | 0.014 / 0.087 | 0.014 /0.110 | 0.022; 0.116 | 0.001–0.009 | – |
5. Tea leaves (μg/kg) | |||||||||
This study (Germany) | 28 | 10.5 / 30.1 | 4.9 / 16.4 | 15.8 / 41.1 | 19.2 / 51.4 | 96.9 / 249.3 | 125 / 321.4 | 0.3 | 100 |
[19] EFSA | 30 | 8.38 / 42.67 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
[70] (India) | 5 | 6.1 /6.1 | 0 /0 | 15.6 / 15.6 | 16.1 /16.1 | 16.5 /16.5 | 16.6 /16.6 | – | – |
[50] (Japan) | 8 | 14.8 /49.2 | 5.6 /25.6 | 33.9 / 107.6 | 53.3 /156.4 | 69.3 /195.4 | 73.2 /205.1 | 0.53 | 88 |
[71] (Germany) | 18 | 3.59 / 13.59 | – | – | – | – | – | 0.26 | – |
[72] (China) | 1 | 18.2 /32.8 | – | – | – | – | – | 0.001 | 100 |
[69] (China) | 6 | 11.6 / 118.1 | 0 /18.7 | 34.7 / 332.8 | 47.8 /345.9 | 58.4 /356.4 | 61 /359 | – | – |
[73] (China) | 4 | 10.1 / 127.2 | 10.2 /126.0 | 12.0 / 172.2 | 12.3 /173.4 | 12.5 /174.5 | 12.6 /174.7 | – | – |
[54] (Germany) | 5 | 3.3 /57.7 | 3.14 /73.7 | 5.7 /95.0 | 5.8 /99.4 | 5.9 /102.8 | 5.9 /103.7 | – | – |
[59] (Germany) | 25 | 8.0 /59.8 | 5.3 /38.6 | 17.0 / 147.9 | 18.7 /153.2 | 29.34 /224.6 | 32.6 / 246.8 | 0.01 | 100 |
[36] (Brazil) | 1 | 4.24 /− | - /− | - /− | - /− | - /− | - /− | – | – |
[74] (Iran) | 8 | 0 /97.9 | 0 /89.0 | 0 /216.5 | 0 / 279.1 | 0 /329.2 | 0 /341.7 | – | – |
[75] (Argentina) | 54 | 9.9 /51.2 | 7.7 /39 | 14.9 /74.9 | 18.2 /83.5 | 20.8 /90.3 | 21.5 /92 | – | – |
[55] (France) | 15 | 4.2 /79.7 | 2.8 /54.4 | 8.2 /178.7 | 13.0 /191.2 | 20.1 /212.6 | 21.9 /218 | 0.6 | 80 |
[42] (Poland) | 22 | 0 /17.7 | 0 /15.5 | 0 /32.3 | 0 /43.1 | 0 /50.9 | 0 /20.9 | 0.3 | 0 |
[76] (Czech Republic) | 36 | 14.3 /82.7 | 14.3 /82.7 | 20.3 / 109.3 | 21.0 /112.6 | 21.6 /115.2 | 21.8 /115.9 | – | – |
[77] (China) | 12 | 18.8 / - | 10.3 / - | 38.2 / - | 52.1 / - | 64.6 / - | 67.7 / - | 0.28 | 100 |
[48] (USA) | 28 | 5.9 /116.3 | 3 /102.5 | 12.6 / 242.7 | 14.0 /362.5 | 25.0 /384.7 | 29.0 /426.0 | 0.01 | 100 |
[49] (Denmark) | 10 | 12.8 /57.5 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
[63] (Nigeria) | 9 | 18.2 /35.4 | 0 /27.2 | 48.9 / 72.0 | 93.0 /104.5 | 128.3 /130.6 | 137.1 / 137.1 | 0.03 | 11 |
[53] (India) | 5 | 0 /1784.5 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
[68] (Germany)b | 56 | 38.0/166.2 | 6.2/35.5 | 67.0/325 | 285/1050 | 388.5/ 1645 | 460/ 1700 | 0.05 | 100 |
6. Tea infusion (μg/L) | |||||||||
[78] (Spain) | 7 | 0.01 /0.04 | 0.007/ 0021 | 0.018/ 0.0823 | 0.021/0.094 | 0.023/ 0.103 | 0.024/ 0.105 | 0.024 | 14.3 |
[68] (Germany) | 14 | < 0.005 / < 0.005 | – | – | – | – | – | 0.005 | 0 |
[55] (France) | 10 | 0.1/1.1 | 0.1/0.8 | 0.1/1.7 | 0.1;2.2 | 0.1/2.6 | 0.1/ 2.7 | 0.6 | 0 |
[53] (India) | 5 | 0/4.5 | 0/4.0 | 0/6.0 | 0/6.3 | 0/6.5 | 0/6.6 | 0.22 | 0 |
BaP (PAH4) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Matrix | Data source(s) | N | Mean | Median | P90 | P95 | P99 |
Coffee beans | [This study, 18,30–32,36–38,40,52–58] | 180 | 4.12 /22.29 | 1.65 /12.34 | 10.39 / 48.55 | 12.64 /55.38 | 15.34 /62.83 |
Coffee infusion | [41] | 36 | 0.004 /0.041 | 0 /0.033 | 0.012 / 0.058 | 0.014 /0.076 | 0.016 /0.095 |
Mate leaves | [This study, 4,5,50,59,51,60–62] | 59 | 142.9 /872.6 | 78.2 /388.5 | 129.1 / 661.9 | 137.7 /685.1 | 219.3 /703.2 |
Mate infusion | 31 | 0.072 /0.214 | 0.026 /0.137 | 0.127 / 0.495 | 0.217 /0.584 | 0.532 /0.860 | |
Tea leaves | [This study, 4,18,30,35–37,40,47,50,54,51,61,63–70] | 330 | 8.71 /150.53 | 7.84 /50.66 | 18.52 / 131.33 | 25.63 / 148.52 | 37.95 /272.03 |
Tea infusiona | 36 | – | – | – | – | – |
Exposure assessment
Matrix | % extractiona | PAH | Reference | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Minimum | Maximum | Mean | |||
Coffee | 0.8 | 1 | 0.9 | BaP | [79] |
Tea | 3.6 | 5.5 | BaP | [80] | |
4.5 | 6.8 | PAH4 | |||
Tea | 0 | 0.52 | PAH | [68] | |
Coffee | 0.6 | 26 | 5 | BaP | [81] |
Tea | 0 | 2.3 | 0.86 | PAH4 | [49] |
Coffee (Dark roasted) | 0 | 14 | 9 | PAH4 | [34] |
Coffee (Medium roasted) | 5 | 9 | 7 | PAH4 | |
Mate | 6 | 37 | PAH | [36] | |
50 | BaP | ||||
Mate | 2 | 6 | [69] | ||
Black tea | 3 | 50 | 7.7 | PAH | [24] |
Tea | 1.1 | 3.1 | BaP | [50] | |
Tea | 82 | 123 | PAH | [55] |
Matrix | Light drinking (1 cup - 0.2 L) | Moderate drinking (2 cups - 0.4 L) | Heavy drinking (1 L) | Very heavy drinking (3 L) | Daily per capita | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BaP | PAH4 | BaP | PAH4 | BaP | PAH4 | BaP | PAH4 | BaP | PAH4 | |
Mean/P95 | Mean/P95 | Mean/P95 | Mean/P95 | Mean/P95 | Mean/P95 | Mean/P95 | Mean/P95 | Mean/P95 | Mean/P95 | |
A. Exposure (µg/kg bw/day) | ||||||||||
1. Coffee | ||||||||||
Beans | 1.88E-04/5.95E-04 | 1.85E-03/5.77E-03 | 3.77E-04/1.19E-03 | 3.70E-03/1.15E-02 | 9.42E-04/2.97E-03 | 9.26E-03/2.89E-02 | 2.83E-03/8.92E-03 | 2.78E-02/8.66E-02 | 4.21E-04/1.32E-03 | 4.15E-03/1.28E-02 |
Infusion | 1.71E-04/5.21E-04 | 1.00E-03/3.10E-03 | 3.41E-04/1.04E-03 | 2.01E-03/6.20E-03 | 8.54E-04/2.61E-03 | 5.02E-03/1.55E-02 | 2.56E-03/7.82E-03 | 1.51E-02/4.65E-02 | ||
2. Mate | ||||||||||
Leaves | 1.94E-03/6.10E-03 | 1.11E-02/3.47E-02 | 3.87E-03/1.22E-02 | 2.22E-02/6.94E-02 | 9.68E-03/3.05E-02 | 5.54E-02/1.73E-01 | 2.90E-02/9.15E-02 | 1.66E-01/5.20E-01 | 4.26E-03/1.44E-02 | 2.45E-02/8.10E-02 |
Infusion | 2.85E-04/8.62E-04 | 7.22E-04/2.18E-03 | 5.70E-04/1.72E-03 | 1.44E-03/4.35E-03 | 1.42E-03/4.31E-03 | 3.61E-03/1.09E-02 | 4.27E-03/1.29E-02 | 1.08E-02/3.26E-02 | ||
3. Tea | ||||||||||
Leaves | 1.65E-04/5.12E-04 | 1.02E-03/3.26E-03 | 3.30E-04/1.02E-03 | 2.04E-03/6.52E-03 | 8.26E-04/2.56E-03 | 5.11E-03/1.63E-02 | 2.48E-03/7.68E-03 | 1.53E-02/4.89E-02 | 8.03E-04/2.78E-03 | 4.98E-03/1.68E-02 |
Infusion | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | ||
B. Margin of exposure | ||||||||||
1. Coffee | ||||||||||
Beans | 4.48E+06/7.98E+06 | 2.18E+06/4.07E+06 | 2.24E+06/3.99E+06 | 1.09E+06/2.04E+06 | 8.97E+05/1.60E+06 | 4.35E+05/8.14E+05 | 2.99E+05/5.32E+05 | 1.45E+05/2.71E+05 | 1.97E+06/3.48E+06 | 9.70E+05/1.72E+06 |
Infusion | 4.61E+06/8.21E+06 | 5.01E+06/6.72E+06 | 2.30E+06/4.11E+06 | 2.51E+06/3.36E+06 | 9.21E+05/1.64E+06 | 1.00E+06/1.34E+06 | 3.07E+05/5.48E+05 | 3.34E+05/4.48E+05 | ||
2. Mate | ||||||||||
Leaves | 4.97E+05/7.54E+05 | 1.13E+06/6.83E+05 | 2.49E+05/3.77E+05 | 5.67E+05/3.42E+05 | 9.94E+04/1.51E+05 | 2.27E+05/1.37E+05 | 3.31E+04/5.03E+04 | 7.56E+04/4.56E+04 | 4.91E+05/3.74E+05 | 2.31E+05/4.32E+05 |
Infusion | 2.45E+06/4.97E+06 | 6.85E+06/9.34E+06 | 1.22E+06/2.48E+06 | 3.43E+06/4.67E+06 | 4.89E+05/9.93E+05 | 1.37E+06/1.87E+06 | 1.63E+05/3.31E+05 | 4.57E+05/6.23E+05 | ||
3. Tea | ||||||||||
Leaves | 4.50E+06/8.96E+06 | 3.35E+06/7.15E+06 | 2.25E+06/4.48E+06 | 1.68E+06/3.58E+06 | 9.00E+05/1.79E+06 | 6.71E+05/1.43E+06 | 3.00E+05/5.97E+05 | 2.24E+05/4.77E+05 | 1.39E+06/2.47E+06 | 1.13E+06/1.83E+06 |
Infusion | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Benchmark dose (BMD) modelling for temperature
Agent | Species | Effect | BMD | BMDL | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
BaP | Mice, 2 year study | Tumours of the alimentary tract | 0.13–0.14 mg/kg bw/day | 70 μg/kg bw/day | EFSA [19] |
PAH4 | Mice, 2 year study | Tumours of the alimentary tract | 0.60–0.61 mg/kg bw/day | 340 μg/kg bw/day | EFSA [19] |
Temperature | Rats, 20 week study | NMBA-induced oesophageal tumours (mean number of tumours) | 64 °C | 56 °C | Own modellinga based on data from Li et al. 2003 [34] |
Temperature | Rats, 20 week study | NMBA-induced oesophageal tumours (mean volume of tumours) | (63 °C)b | (26 °C)b | Own modellinga based on data from Li et al. 2003 [34] |