Background
Methods
Survey
Variable | Self-reported disease state | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
None | Respiratory | Autoimmune | Both | US | |
(N = 1303) | (N = 618) | (N = 478) | (N = 136) | (2019 ACS) | |
Age - average years [SD]
| 32.6 [11.3] | 35.8 [14.2] | 38.5 [12.6] | 39.2 [14.5] | 38.4 (median) |
Race – No. (%)
| |||||
Non-Hispanic White
| 872 (67.7) | 428 (70.2) | 381 (80.4) | 108 (79.4) | 60.10% |
Black
| 82 (6.4) | 45 (7.38) | 22 (4.6) | 6 (4.4) | 12.20% |
Hispanic or Latino
| 63 (4.9) | 25 (4.1) | 22 (4.6) | 4 (2.9) | 18.50% |
Asian American
| 180 (14.0) | 58 (9.5) | 21 (4.4) | 7 (5.2) | 5.60% |
Native American
| 6 (0.5) | 6 (0.98) | 1 (0.2) | 2 (1.5) | 0.70% |
Two or more Ethnicities
| 86 (6.7) | 48 (7.9) | 27 (5.7) | 9 (6.6) | 2.80% |
Female – No. (%)
| 673 (51.8) | 359 (58.1) | 361 (75.5) | 111 (81.6) | 50.80% |
Education - median
| 4-year College Degree | 2-year College Degree | 4-year College Degree | 2-year College Degree | 4-year College Degree |
Household Income – Median
| $60,000–69,999 | $50,000–59,999 | $50,000–59,999 | $40,000–49,999 | $68,703 |
Region – No. (%)
| |||||
West
| 337 (26.1) | 157 (25.6) | 105 (22.1) | 30 (22.1) | 23.90% |
Midwest
| 258 (20.0) | 132 (21.5) | 93 (19.5) | 32 (23.5) | 20.80% |
South
| 448 (34.7) | 199 (32.5) | 182 (38.2) | 47 (34.6) | 38.30% |
Northeast
| 247 (19.2) | 125 (20.4) | 96 (20.2) | 27 (19.9) | 17.10% |
Urban-Rural – mean (0 = Urban; 1 = Rural)
| 0.42 | 0.44 | 0.47 | 0.47 | — |
Partisanship – mean (0 = Strong Democrat; 1 = Strong Republican)
| 0.3 | 0.26 | 0.28 | 0.32 | — |
Had COVID themselves – No. (%)
| 88 (6.8) | 39 (6.3) | 35 (7.3) | 16 (11.8) | 7% (Ref. 35) |
Family/close friends had COVID – No. (%)
| 694 (53.3) | 339 (54.9) | 297 (62.1) | 82 (60.3) | 67% (Ref. 36) |
Students – No. (%)
| 341 (27.1) | 157 (25.8) | 91 (19.2) | 30 (22.4) | 8.40% |
Employed full time – No. (%)
| 569 (48.5) | 212 (38.7) | 194 (43.5) | 23 (19.3) | 59.50% |
Data analysis
Results
Respiratory | Autoimmune | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Sample 1 | Sample 2 | Sample 1 | Sample 2 | |
Outcome | Coefficient (95% CI) | Coefficient (95% CI) | Coefficient (95% CI) | Coefficient (95% CI) |
Attitudes about COVID-19
| ||||
COVID-19 is a serious threat to my health |
0.12 (0.10, 0.15)
|
0.15 (0.11, 0.19)
|
0.11 (0.08, 0.14)
|
0.12 (0.08, 0.17)
|
COVID-19 is a serious threat to the public’s health |
0.04 (0.02, 0.06)
|
0.05 (0.01, 0.08)
|
0.03 (0.01, 0.06)
| 0.02 (-0.01, 0.06) |
The threat of COVID-19 is overblown |
-0.06 (-0.09, -0.03)
| -0.04 (-0.08, 0.00) |
-0.04 (-0.07, -0.01)
| -0.03 (-0.08, 0.01) |
Emotional/Mental fatigue | — |
0.06 (0.03, 0.10)
| — |
0.07 (0.03, 0.11)
|
Need to get back to ‘normal’ | — | -0.04 (-0.09, 0.00) | — | -0.05 (-0.10, 0.00) |
Individual-level interventions
| — | — | — | — |
Handwashing | 0.02 (-0.01, 0.04) | 0.02 (-0.02, 0.06) |
0.05 (0.02, 0.08)
| 0.03 (-0.01, 0.07) |
Limiting trips outside the home |
0.03 (0.01, 0.06)
|
0.06 (0.01, 0.10)
|
0.04 (0.01, 0.07)
|
0.07 (0.02, 0.12)
|
Mask wearing |
0.03 (0.01, 0.04)
| 0.04 (0.00, 0.08) |
0.02 (0.01, 0.04)
| 0.03 (-0.02, 0.07) |
Social distancing |
0.03 (0.01, 0.05)
| 0.04 (0.00, 0.08) |
0.04 (0.02, 0.07)
| 0.04 (0.00, 0.08) |
Working from home | 0.02 (-0.02, 0.07) | — | 0.03 (-0.02, 0.08) | — |
Willingness to receive a COVID-19 vaccine* |
0.06 (0.03, 0.09)
| — | 0.02 (-0.01, 0.05) | — |
Willingness to receive a COVID-19 booster** | — | 0.02 (-0.02, 0.06) | — | -0.03 (-0.07, 0.01) |
Community-level interventions
| — | — | — | — |
Limits on indoor dining |
0.06 (0.03, 0.08)
| 0.03 (-0.02, 0.07) | 0.03 (0.00, 0.06) | 0.01 (-0.04, 0.05) |
Limits on in-person worship services |
0.04 (0.01, 0.07)
|
0.06 (0.02, 0.11)
| 0.03 (-0.01, 0.06) | 0.03 (-0.02, 0.08) |
Lockdown of all non-essential travel |
0.05 (0.01, 0.08)
| 0.04 (-0.01, 0.09) |
0.06 (0.02, 0.09)
| 0.05 (0.00, 0.10) |
Mandatory mask-wearing in public |
0.05 (0.02, 0.07)
|
0.05 (0.01, 0.09)
|
0.03 (0.01, 0.06)
| 0.02 (-0.03, 0.06) |
School closures |
0.05 (0.01, 0.08)
|
0.07 (0.02, 0.11)
|
0.04 (0.01, 0.07)
| 0.05 (0.00, 0.10) |
Vaccine mandates | — |
0.07 (0.02, 0.12)
| — | 0.04 (-0.01, 0.09) |
Vaccine passports | — |
0.07 (0.02, 0.11)
| — | -0.01 (-0.05, 0.05) |
Vaccine attitudes
|
Odds ratio (95% CI)
| — |
Odds ratio (95% CI)
| — |
Willing: Want to protect myself from COVID-19 |
1.88 (1.30, 2.70)
| — |
1.50 (1.01, 2.23)
| — |
Willing: Want to protect others from COVID-19 | 1.16 (0.85, 1.58) | — | 1.07 (0.76, 1.52) | — |
Willing: Vaccine is safe | 1.21 (0.93, 1.56) | — | 1.13 (0.85, 1.51) | — |
Willing: Vaccine has been fully tested | 1.08 (0.84, 1.38) | — | 1.07 (0.81, 1.42) | — |
Willing: Want to return to work |
1.49 (1.14, 1.95)
| — | 1.18 (0.86, 1.61) | — |
Willing: Want life to return to normal | 1.07 (0.82, 1.40) | — | 0.90 (0.67, 1.21) | — |
Unwilling: Don’t believe in vaccines | 0.96 (0.36, 2.62) | — | 0.80 (0.28, 2.32) | — |
Unwilling: Afraid of bad reaction | 1.91 (0.99, 3.66) | — |
2.47 (1.29, 4.72)
| — |
Unwilling: Vaccine is not safe | 1.55 (0.83, 2.91) | — | 1.01 (0.53, 1.89) | — |
Unwilling: Vaccine has not been fully tested | 1.31 (0.66, 2.59) | — | 0.85 (0.44, 1.65) | — |
Unwilling: COVID-19 is not a serious threat | 0.58 (0.23, 1.44) | — | 0.37 (0.14, 0.96) | — |
Fully vaccinated | — |
1.85 (1.18, 2.92)
| — | 0.81 (0.53, 1.26) |
Personal beliefs about COVID-19
Acceptance of NPIs
Vaccine acceptance
None | Respiratory | Autoimmune | Both | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | Sample 1 | Sample 2 | Sample 1 | Sample 2 | Sample 1 | Sample 2 | Sample 1 | Sample 2 | ||||
COVID-19 serious threat to my health
| 0.69 (0.01) | 0.58 (0.01) | 0.82 (0.02) | 0.73 (0.02) | 0.79 (0.02) | 0.70 (0.02) | 0.84 (0.03) | 0.78 (0.04) | ||||
COVID-19 serious threat to public’s health
| 0.87 (0.01) | 0.81 (0.01) | 0.92 (0.01) | 0.86 (0.01) | 0.89 (0.01) | 0.83 (0.02) | 0.91 (0.03) | 0.86 (0.03) | ||||
COVID-19 overblown
| 0.23 (0.01) | 0.27 (0.01) | 0.18 (0.02) | 0.22 (0.02) | 0.21 (0.02) | 0.23 (0.02) | 0.17 (0.04) | 0.23 (0.04) | ||||
Emotional/mental fatigue
| — | 0.30 (0.01) | — | 0.37 (0.01) | — | 0.37 (0.02) | — | 0.36 (0.03) | ||||
Need to get back to ‘normal’
| — | 0.44 (0.01) | — | 0.40 (0.02) | — | 0.39 (0.02) | — | 0.32 (0.04) | ||||
Handwashing
| 0.81 (0.01) | 0.74 (0.01) | 0.81 (0.01) | 0.76 (0.02) | 0.85 (0.02) | 0.77 (0.02) | 0.86 (0.02) | 0.75 (0.03) | ||||
Limiting trips
| 0.84 (0.01) | 0.65 (0.01) | 0.88 (0.01) | 0.71 (0.02) | 0.88 (0.02) | 0.72 (0.02) | 0.87 (0.03) | 0.75 (0.04) | ||||
Mask wearing
| 0.93 (0.01) | 0.77 (0.01) | 0.95 (0.01) | 0.81 (0.02) | 0.95 (0.01) | 0.80 (0.02) | 0.95 (0.02) | 0.85 (0.04) | ||||
Social distancing
| 0.85 (0.01) | 0.71 (0.01) | 0.87 (0.01) | 0.74 (0.02) | 0.89 (0.01) | 0.75 (0.02) | 0.91 (0.03) | 0.80 (0.04) | ||||
Working from home
| 0.59 (0.02) | — | 0.62 (0.03) | — | 0.61 (0.03) | — | 0.65 (0.06) | — | ||||
Willingness to receive vaccine
| 0.77 (0.01) | — | 0.82 (0.02) | — | 0.77 (0.02) | — | 0.77 (0.04) | — | ||||
Willingness to receive booster
| — | 0.84 (0.01) | — | 0.86 (0.02) | — | 0.81 (0.02) | — | 0.88 (0.04) | ||||
Limits on indoor dining
| 0.82 (0.01) | 0.68 (0.01) | 0.89 (0.02) | 0.70 (0.02) | 0.84 (0.02) | 0.68 (0.02) | 0.86 (0.03) | 0.70 (0.04) | ||||
Limits on in-person worship
| 0.79 (0.01) | 0.64 (0.01) | 0.84 (0.02) | 0.71 (0.02) | 0.80 (0.02) | 0.67 (0.02) | 0.82 (0.04) | 0.70 (0.04) | ||||
Lockdowns
| 0.66 (0.01) | 0.47 (0.01) | 0.74 (0.02) | 0.51 (0.02) | 0.72 (0.02) | 0.52 (0.02) | 0.76 (0.04) | 0.57 (0.04) | ||||
Mask mandates
| 0.88 (0.01) | 0.75 (0.01) | 0.93 (0.01) | 0.80 (0.02) | 0.90 (0.01) | 0.77 (0.02) | 0.89 (0.03) | 0.82 (0.04) | ||||
School closures
| 0.69 (0.01) | 0.52 (0.01) | 0.77 (0.02) | 0.59 (0.02) | 0.73 (0.02) | 0.58 (0.02) | 0.72 (0.04) | 0.60 (0.04) | ||||
Vaccine mandates
| — | 0.62 (0.01) | — | 0.69 (0.02) | — | 0.65 (0.02) | — | 0.71 (0.04) | ||||
Vaccine passports
| — | 0.65 (0.01) | — | 0.71 (0.02) | — | 0.64 (0.02) | — | 0.71 (0.04) |