Introduction
Methods
Study design and participants
Study instruments
Sociodemographic profile
Personal history, comorbidity, and symptom profile
WHOQOL-BREF
Statistical analysis
Results
Reliability and validity of the questionnaire
Physical | Psychological | Social | Environmental | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Physical | 1 | |||
Psychological | 0.5529* | 1 | ||
Social | 0.3446* | 0.3929* | 1 | |
Environmental | 0.1792* | 0.1367* | 0.2272* | 1 |
Participants’ characteristics
Variables | Non-COVID (n = 222) n (%) | COVID (n = 222) n (%) | P-valuea | Overall (n = 444) n (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Age (years)b | ||||
< 28 | 48 (21.62) | 56 (25.23) | < 0.001*** | 104 (23.42) |
28–29 | 53 (23.87) | 30 (13.51) | 83 (18.69) | |
30–34 | 95 (42.79) | 44 (19.82) | 139 (31.31) | |
35+ | 26 (11.71) | 92 (41.44) | 118 (26.58) | |
Sex | ||||
Male | 111 (50.00) | 128 (57.66) | 0.106 | 239 (53.83) |
Female | 111 (50.00) | 94 (42.34) | 205 (46.17) | |
Religion | ||||
Muslim | 201 (90.54) | 177 (79.73) | 0.001** | 378 (85.14) |
Non-Muslim | 21 (9.46) | 45 (20.27) | 66 (14.86) | |
Education | ||||
SSC/HSC | 5 (2.25) | 60 (27.03) | < 0.001*** | 65 (14.64) |
Graduate | 162 (72.97) | 119 (53.60) | 281 (63.29) | |
Post-graduate | 55 (24.77) | 43 (19.37) | 98 (22.07) | |
Monthly Income (BDT) | ||||
< 20,000 | 12 (5.88) | 34 (17.44) | < 0.001*** | 46 (11.53) |
20,000–40,000 | 57 (27.94) | 72 (36.92) | 129 (32.33) | |
40,001–60,000 | 57 (27.94) | 34 (17.44) | 91 (22.81) | |
60,000+ | 78 (38.24) | 55 (28.21) | 133 (33.33) | |
Marital status | ||||
Married | 148 (66.67) | 178 (80.18) | 0.001** | 326 (73.42) |
Single/Divorced/Widowed | 74 (33.33) | 44 (19.82) | 118 (26.58) | |
Number of chronic diseases | ||||
0 | 182 (81.98) | 148 (66.67) | < 0.001*** | 330 (74.32) |
1 | 35 (15.77) | 48 (21.62) | 83 (18.69) | |
2 | 5 (2.25) | 9 (4.05) | 14 (3.15) | |
3 or more | 0 (0.00) | 17 (7.66) | 17 (3.83) | |
Hospitalized due to COVID | ||||
No | – | 135 (60.81) | – | 135 (60.81) |
Yes | – | 87 (39.19) | 87 (39.19) | |
Smoking habits | ||||
Never | 186 (83.78) | 167 (75.23) | < 0.001*** | 353 (79.50) |
Current | 36 (16.22) | 39 (17.57) | 75 (16.89) | |
Past | 0 (0.00) | 16 (7.21) | 16 (3.60) |
Quality of life (QOL) scores between non-COVID and COVID participants
Regression analysis
Factors associated with physical QOL
Domain | Non-COVID | COVID | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variables | Unadjusted model | Adjusted model | Unadjusted model | Adjusted model | ||||
β (95% CI) | p-value | β (95% CI) | p-value | β (95% CI) | p-value | β (95% CI) | p-value | |
Age (years) | ||||||||
< 28 | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | ||||
28–29 | 4.09 (− 0.66, 8.84) | 0.091 | 4.75 (− 0.21, 9.71) | 0.060 | − 2.85 (− 8.59, 2.88) | 0.328 | − 2.85 (− 8.30, 2.59) | 0.303 |
30–34 | 0.64 (− 3.58, 4.86) | 0.765 | 0.41 (− 4.11, 4.94) | 0.857 | − 2.47 (− 7.58, 2.63) | 0.341 | − 1.73 (− 6.60, 3.13) | 0.483 |
35+ | − 0.16 (− 5.97, 5.65) | 0.956 | 0.61 (− 5.50, 6.71) | 0.845 | − 5.76 (− 10.05, − 1.46) | 0.009** | − 2.64 (− 7.01, 1.73) | 0.234 |
Sex | ||||||||
Male | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | ||||
Female | − 4.75 (− 7.90, − 1.59) | 0.003** | −5.40 (− 8.63, − 2.17) | 0.001** | −3.51 (− 6.96, − 0.06) | 0.046* | − 4.86 (− 8.41, − 1.31) | 0.008** |
Religion | ||||||||
Muslim | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||||
Non-Muslim | 0.85 (− 4.64, 6.35) | 0.760 | −3.68 (−7.93, 0.57) | 0.090 | −2.97 (−7.03, 1.09) | 0.151 | ||
Education | ||||||||
SSC/HSC | Reference | Reference | ||||||
Graduate | 8.59 (−2.25, 19.42) | 0.120 | −0.53 (−4.60, 3.54) | 0.798 | ||||
Post-graduate | 7.35 (−3.80, 18.49) | 0.196 | −0.74 (−5.88, 4.39) | 0.776 | ||||
Monthly Income (BDT) | ||||||||
< 20,000 | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||||
20,000–40,000 | 7.47 (− 0.031, 14.97) | 0.051 | 6.10 (−1.30, 13.49) | 0.106 | 0.04 (−5.39, 5.48) | 0.988 | ||
40,000–60,000 | 10.08 (2.58, 17.58) | 0.009** | 7.91 (0.49, 15.33) | 0.037* | −0.18 (−6.51, 6.16) | 0.956 | ||
60,000+ | 8.90 (1.58, 16.23) | 0.017* | 8.27 (0.97, 15.58) | 0.027* | −0.43 (−6.13, 5.27) | 0.883 | ||
Marital status | ||||||||
Married | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||||
Single/Divorced/Widowed | 3.66 (0.29, 7.04) | 0.034* | 1.90 (−1.65, 5.45) | 0.292 | 2.34 (− 1.96, 6.65) | 0.285 | ||
Number of chronic diseases | ||||||||
0 | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | ||||
1 | −7.40 (−11.71, −3.09) | 0.001** | −7.57 (− 11.94, − 3.21) | 0.001** | −4.94 (−8.97, −0.90) | 0.017* | − 3.36 (− 7.46, 0.74) | 0.108 |
2 | −6.60 (− 17.19, 3.99) | 0.221 | −6.50 (− 16.79, 3.79) | 0.214 | −9.20 (− 17.55, − 0.85) | 0.031* | − 6.79 (− 15.22, 1.65) | 0.114 |
3 or more | – | – | – | – | − 14.55 (−20.77, − 8.32) | < 0.001*** | − 13.28 (− 19.72, − 6.83) | < 0.001*** |
Hospitalized due to COVID | ||||||||
No | – | – | Reference | Reference | ||||
Yes | – | – | −5.72 (−9.17, −2.28) | 0.001** | − 3.45 (− 6.86, − 0.04) | 0.048* | ||
Smoking habits | ||||||||
Never | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||||
Current | 3.05 (−1.30, 7.39) | 0.168 | −2.08 (−6.61, 2.46) | 0.368 | −1.63 (− 6.36, 3.10) | 0.498 | ||
Past | – | – | −6.13 (−12.80, 0.54) | 0.072 | −6.80 (−13.18, − 0.42) | 0.037* |
Factors associated with psychological QOL
Domain | Non-COVID | COVID | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variables | Unadjusted model | Adjusted model | Unadjusted model | Adjusted model | ||||
β (95% CI) | p-value | β (95% CI) | p-value | β (95% CI) | p-value | β (95% CI) | p-value | |
Age (years) | ||||||||
< 28 | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||||
28–29 | 3.33 (−2.18, 8.85) | 0.234 | −2.32 (−9.06, 4.43) | 0.500 | −2.94 (− 9.52, 3.63) | 0.378 | ||
30–34 | −0.51 (− 5.41, 4.39) | 0.837 | −5.10 (−11.11, 0.91) | 0.096* | −5.35 (− 11.35, 0.65) | 0.080 | ||
35+ | 2.46 (−4.27, 9.20) | 0.472 | −7.75 (−12.81, −2.70) | 0.003** | −4.78 (− 10.47, 0.91) | 0.099 | ||
Sex | ||||||||
Male | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | ||||
Female | −4.85 (−8.51, −1.18) | 0.010* | −4.94 (−8.54, − 1.35) | 0.007** | −4.98 (−9.05, −0.91) | 0.017* | − 7.76 (− 11.96, − 3.57) | < 0.001*** |
Religion | ||||||||
Muslim | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||||
Non-Muslim | 0.90 (−5.45, 7.26) | 0.780 | −6.91 (−11.90, −1.93) | 0.007** | − 5.60 (− 10.38, − 0.82) | 0.022* | ||
Education | ||||||||
SSC/HSC | Reference | Reference | ||||||
Graduate | −9.05 (−21.60, 3.51) | 0.157 | 2.24 (−2.54, 7.02) | 0.356 | ||||
Post-graduate | −7.56 (−20.48, 5.35) | 0.250 | −2.87 (−8.90, 3.16) | 0.349 | ||||
Monthly Income (BDT) | ||||||||
< 20,000 | Reference | Reference | ||||||
20,000–40,000 | −0.64 (−9.55, 8.28) | 0.888 | 2.89 (−3.33, 9.12) | 0.361 | ||||
40,000–60,000 | 1.45 (−7.46, 10.37) | 0.749 | 3.47 (−3.78, 10.73) | 0.347 | ||||
60,000+ | 3.69 (−5.02, 12.39) | 0.405 | 2.56 (−3.97, 9.08) | 0.440 | ||||
Marital status | ||||||||
Married | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||||
Single/Divorced/Widowed | 0.08 (−3.87, 4.03) | 0.968 | 5.54 (0.48, 10.60) | 0.032* | −0.006 (−5.47, 5.46) | 0.998 | ||
Number of chronic diseases | ||||||||
0 | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | ||||
1 | −7.68 (−12.68, −2.69) | 0.003** | −7.82 (−12.80, −2.83) | 0.002** | −3.75 (−8.60, 1.09) | 0.128 | −1.83 (−6.65, 3.00) | 0.456 |
2 | −11.80 (−24.07, 0.46) | 0.059 | − 12.26 (− 24.38, −0.14) | 0.047* | −16.32 (− 26.34, − 6.31) | 0.002** | −12.59 (− 22.51, − 2.66) | 0.013* |
3 or more | – | – | −12.52 (− 20.00, − 5.05) | 0.001** | −9.33 (− 16.91, − 1.74) | 0.016* | ||
Hospitalized due to COVID | ||||||||
No | – | – | Reference | Reference | ||||
Yes | – | – | −6.74 (−10.82, −2.67) | 0.001** | − 3.68 (−7.73, 0.37) | 0.075 | ||
Smoking habits | ||||||||
Never | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||||
Current | 1.64 (−3.41, 6.68) | 0.524 | −5.52 (−10.88, − 0.16) | 0.044* | −6.71 (− 12.28, − 1.13) | 0.019* | ||
Past | – | – | −1.79 (−9.68, 6.09) | 0.654 | −2.47 (− 9.98, 5.05) | 0.518 |
Factors associated with social QOL
Domain | Non-COVID | COVID | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variables | Unadjusted model | Adjusted model | Unadjusted model | Adjusted model | ||||
β (95% CI) | p-value | β (95% CI) | p-value | β (95% CI) | p-value | β (95% CI) | p-value | |
Age (years) | ||||||||
< 28 | Reference | Reference | ||||||
28–29 | 3.20 (− 1.93, 8.33) | 0.220 | − 2.43 (− 9.15, 4.28) | 0.476 | ||||
30–34 | 0.15 (−4.45, 4.76) | 0.947 | 2.10 (−3.87, 8.08) | 0.489 | ||||
35+ | 1.71 (− 4.56, 7.98) | 0.591 | 1.19 (−3.84, 6.22) | 0.642 | ||||
Sex | ||||||||
Male | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||||
Female | −1.54 (−5.04, 1.95) | 0.384 | −5.50 (−9.47, − 1.54) | 0.007** | −6.07 (− 9.95, −2.20) | 0.002** | ||
Religion | ||||||||
Muslim | Reference | Reference | ||||||
Non-Muslim | 2.95 (−2.96, 8.85) | 0.326 | −0.20 (−5.15, 4.76) | 0.938 | ||||
Education | ||||||||
SSC/HSC | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||||
Graduate | 10.34 (−1.28, 21.96) | 0.081 | 9.61 (−2.01, 21.23) | 0.104 | 1.18 (−3.50, 5.87) | 0.620 | ||
Postgraduate | 12.09 (0.13, 24.06) | 0.048* | 11.00 (−1.01, 23.01) | 0.072 | 4.36 (−1.55, 10.27) | 0.147 | ||
Monthly Income (BDT) | ||||||||
< 20,000 | Reference | Reference | ||||||
20,000–40,000 | 3.34 (−5.05, 11.73) | 0.433 | 0.46 (−5.90, 6.82) | 0.887 | ||||
40,000–60,000 | 2.88 (−5.51, 11.16) | 0.500 | 3.05 (−4.36, 10.48) | 0.417 | ||||
60,000+ | 4.08 (−4.11, 12.27) | 0.327 | 0.98 (−5.70, 7.65) | 0.773 | ||||
Marital status | ||||||||
Married | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | ||||
Single/Divorced/Widowed | −3.36 (−7.06, 0.34) | 0.075 | −2.93 (−6.66, 0.80) | 0.123 | −6.15 (−11.08, −1.22) | 0.015* | −6.78 (−11.66, −1.90) | 0.007** |
Number of chronic diseases | ||||||||
0 | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||||
1 | −2.53 (−7.28, 2.22) | 0.295 | 4.34 (−0.52, 9.20) | 0.080 | 3.21 (−1.56, 7.99) | 0.186 | ||
2 | −7.10 (−18.75, 4.55) | 0.231 | −3.08 (−13.13, 6.98) | 0.547 | −5.41 (−15.25, 4.42) | 0.279 | ||
3 or more | – | – | −6.68 (−14.18, 0.81) | 0.080 | −8.11 (−15.41, −0.80) | 0.030* | ||
Hospitalized due to COVID | ||||||||
No | – | – | Reference | |||||
Yes | – | – | 0.11 (−3.96, 4.19) | 0.956 | ||||
Smoking habits | ||||||||
Never | Reference | Reference | ||||||
Current | −0.84 (−5.54, 3.84) | 0.727 | −3.10 (−8.38, 2.16) | 0.247 | ||||
Past | – | – | −0.77 (8.53, 6.99) | 0.845 |
Factors associated with environmental QOL
Domain | Non-COVID | COVID | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variables | Unadjusted model | Adjusted model | Unadjusted model | Adjusted model | ||||
β (95% CI) | p-value | β (95% CI) | p-value | β (95% CI) | p-value | β (95% CI) | p-value | |
Age (years) | ||||||||
< 28 | Reference | Reference | ||||||
28–29 | 2.83 (−1.76, 7.43) | 0.226 | 1.89 (−3.43, 7.21) | 0.485 | ||||
30–34 | −1.05 (−5.13, 3.03) | 0.612 | 0.21 (−4.53, 4.94) | 0.931 | ||||
35+ | 0.75 (−4.86, 6.37) | 0.792 | 3.17 (−0.82, 7.15) | 0.118 | ||||
Sex | ||||||||
Male | Reference | Reference | ||||||
Female | −0.55 (−3.66, 2.56) | 0.728 | −2.60 (−5.79, 0.58) | 0.109 | ||||
Religion | ||||||||
Muslim | Reference | Reference | ||||||
Non-Muslim | −0.38 (−5.68, 4.93) | 0.889 | −0.60 (−4.53, 3.34) | 0.765 | ||||
Education | ||||||||
SSC/HSC | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||||
Graduate | −5.81 (−16.26, 4.63) | 0.274 | 0.81 (−2.84, 4.45) | 0.664 | 0.12 (−3.71, 3.95) | 0.949 | ||
Postgraduate | −2.69 (−13.43, 8.05) | 0.622 | 7.17 (2.57, 11.78) | 0.002** | 2.32 (−3.58, 8.23) | 0.439 | ||
Monthly Income (BDT) | ||||||||
< 20,000 | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||||
20,000–40,000 | −0.92 (−8.45, 6.61) | 0.810 | 2.70 (−2.15, 7.55) | 0.273 | 2.79 (− 2.09, 7.66) | 0.261 | ||
40,000–60,000 | −2.08 (−9.61, 5.45) | 0.587 | 2.59 (−3.07, 8.24) | 0.368 | 1.50 (−4.30, 7.30) | 0.610 | ||
60,000+ | 1.59 (−5.76, 8.94) | 0.670 | 6.97 (1.88, 12.05) | 0.008** | 6.52 (1.22, 11.81) | 0.016* | ||
Marital status | ||||||||
Married | Reference | Reference | ||||||
Single/Divorced/Widowed | 0.07 (−3.23, 3.36) | 0.968 | −1.81 (−5.77, 2.16) | 0.370 | ||||
Number of chronic diseases | ||||||||
0 | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||||
1 | 1.73 (−2.53, 5.99) | 0.424 | 4.24 (0.35, 8.12) | 0.033* | 0.16 (−4.40, 4.71) | 0.946 | ||
2 | 6.73 (−3.74, 17.20) | 0.206 | 4.26 (− 3.77, 12.30) | 0.297 | −0.84 (−9.90, 8.23) | 0.856 | ||
3 or more | 2.43 (−3.56, 8.42) | 0.425 | −3.14 (−10.08, 3.80) | 0.373 | ||||
Hospitalized due to COVID | ||||||||
No | – | – | Reference | |||||
Yes | – | – | 2.37 (−0.86, 5.60) | 0.149 | ||||
Smoking habits | ||||||||
Never | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||||
Current | −0.75 (−4.96, 3.47) | 0.727 | 7.04 (2.95, 11.13) | 0.001** | 6.60 (1.85, 11.34) | 0.007** | ||
Past | – | 3.99 (−2.03, 10.00) | 0.193 | 6.13 (−0.19, 12.45) | 0.057 |