Background
Methods
Study area and population
Cumulative exposure level
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Score 1: Not using PPE
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Score 0.8: PPE-1 (dust mask / goggles / apron)
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Score 0.7: PPE 2 (cartridge respirator / boots)
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Score 0.6: PPE 3 (chemical gloves)
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Score 0.5: Combination of PPE 1 & 2
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Score 0.4: Combination of PPE 1 & 3
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Score 0.3: Combination of PPE 2 & 3
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Score 0.1: Combination of PPE 1, 2 & 3 (proper PPE use)
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Score 0.2: Change clothing + handwash/ shower immediately after exposure
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Score 0.4: Change clothing + handwash/ shower at lunch (breaktime)
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Score 0.6: Change clothing + handwash/ shower at lunch (breaktime) or at the end of the day
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Score 0.8: Change clothing + handwash/ shower at the end of the day
Agricultural work-related characteristics
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Arable land area = total arable land area in acres
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Number of arable lands
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Daily work duration (hours) = average duration of all agricultural activities on the farm in hours/day
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Duration of spraying pesticide = average duration of spraying activity in hours/day
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Volume of the mixture applied = average volume of the mixture applied in litre/day
Statistical analysis
Results
Variable | Cumulative Exposure Level | p-value | |
---|---|---|---|
High (n = 71) | Low (n = 81) | ||
Age (years) (mean ± SD) | 51.49 ± 8.6 | 48.52 ± 9.92 | 0.052tt |
Member of farmer’s society (n %) | 66 (93) | 75 (92,6) | 0.931cs |
Male (n %) | 65 (91,5) | 72 (88,9) | 0.583cs |
Low educational level (n %) | 65 (91.5) | 67 (82.7) | 0.108cs |
Smoker (n %) | 41 (57,7) | 32 (39,5) | 0.025cs |
Obese (n %) | 16 (22,5) | 14 (17,3) | 0.417cs |
Variable | Cumulative Exposure Level | p-value | |
---|---|---|---|
High (n = 71) | Low (n = 81) | ||
Arable land area (acres)a | 0.25 (0.03–0.70) | 0.15 (0.01–0.50) | 0.001 |
Number of arable landsa | 4 (1–13) | 3 (1–9) | 0.026 |
Daily work duration (hours)a | 7 (3–10) | 6 (3–10) | 0.003 |
Spraying in the morning time (n %) | 48 (67.6) | 44 (54.3) | 0.095cs |
Duration of spraying pesticide (hours/day)a | 0.57 (0.14–2.00) | 0.30 (0.04–2.25) | < 0.001 |
Volume of the mixture applied (litre/day)a | 27.2 (7.0–81.6) | 14.6 (2.3–85.0) | < 0.001 |
Used more than 3 pesticides in mixture (n %) | 15 (21.1) | 30 (37.0) | 0.032cs |
Using a manually pressurised sprayer (n %) | 13 (18.3) | 23 (28.4) | 0.145cs |
Variable | Frequency - n (%) | |
---|---|---|
Rare / never | Frequent | |
Personal Protective Equipment | ||
Apron | 150 (98.7) | 2 (1.3) |
Face mask | 79 (52.0) | 73 (48.0) |
Goggles | 151 (99.3) | 1 (0.7) |
Chemical gloves | 148 (97.4) | 4 (2.6) |
Boots* | 64 (42.1) | 88 (57.9) |
Work clothes | ||
Long-sleeved clothes | 15 (9.9) | 137 (90.1) |
Long pants | 14 (9.2) | 138 (90.8) |
Work practices | ||
Wiping sweat with work clothes | 123 (80.9) | 29 (19.1) |
Re-enter the field after spraying | 119 (78.3) | 33 (21.7) |
Spraying against the wind | 151 (99.3) | 1 (0.7) |
Splashed or spilled during spraying | 19 (12.5) | 133 (87.5) |
Splashed or spilled while loading the pesticide | 28 (18.4) | 124 (81.6) |
Eat in the middle of the work-time | 147 (96.7) | 5 (3.3) |
Direct contact with pesticides | 41 (27.0) | 111 (73.0) |
Proper shower after spraying | 12 (7.9) | 140 (92.1) |
Changing clothes after spraying | 7 (4.6) | 145 (95.4) |
Active ingredient | Chemical class | Utilisation | Frequency (n %) |
---|---|---|---|
Mancozeb | Carbamate | Fungicide | 87 (57.2) |
Abamectin | Avermectin | Insecticide | 57 (37.5)* |
Difenoconazole | Triazoles | Fungicide | 49 (32.2) |
Emamectin | Avermectin | Insecticide | 17 (11.2) |
Lambdacyhalothrin | Pyretroid | Insecticide | 14 (9.2) |
Chlorfenapyr | Pyrrole | Insecticide | 12 (7.9) |
Beta-cyfluthrin | Pyrethroid | Insecticide | 10 (6.6) |
Lufenurona | Benzamida | Insecticide | 9 (5.9) |
Methomyl | Carbamate | Insecticide | 9 (5.9) |
Fipronil | Phenylpyrazole | Insecticide | 7 (4.6) |
Dimethoate | Organophosphate | Insecticide | 6 (3.9) |
Imidacloprid | Neonicotinoid | Insecticide | 6 (3.9) |
Propineb | Carbamate | Fungicide | 6 (3.9) |
Deltamethrin | Pyrethroid | Insecticide | 4 (2.6) |
Profenofos | Organophosphate | Insecticide | 4 (2.6) |
Cypermethrin | Pyretroid | Insecticide | 4 (2.6) |
Chlorantraniliprole | Diamide | Insecticide | 3 (2.0) |
Acephate | Organophosphate | Insecticide | 2 (1.3) |
Dimehypo | Thiosultap | Insecticide | 1 (0.7) |
Chlorothalonil | Chloronitriles | Fungicide | 1 (0.7) |
Mefenoxam | Phenylamides | Fungicide | 1 (0.7) |
Pyraclostrobin | Carbamate | Fungicide | 1 (0.7) |
Phoxim | Organophosphate | Insecticide | 1 (0.7) |
Methoxyfenozideb | Benzohydrazide | Insecticide | 1 (0.7) |
Spinetoramb | Spinosyn | Insecticide | 1 (0.7) |
Variable | B | SE (B) | Beta | 95% CI (Lower; Upper) | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age (years) | 0.791 | 0.165 | 0.319 | 0.47; 1.18 | < 0.001 |
Arable land area (acres) | 52.633 | 15,437 | 0.289 | 22.12; 83.14 | 0.001 |
Volume of the mixture applied (L/day) | 0.329 | 0.107 | 0.259 | 0.19; 0.54 | 0.002 |
Long pants (work clothes) | −5.691 | 2.478 | −0,160 | −10.59; − 0.79 | 0.023 |
Long-sleeved clothes (work clothes) | −4.834 | 2111 | −0,160 | −9.01; − 0.66 | 0.023 |