Strength training with high loads (≥ 80% of one repetition maximum) can improve running economy and might be particularly effective in athletes running at high speeds (e.g., > 12.00 km/h) and/or possessing a well-developed VO2max. |
Plyometric training could improve running economy at speeds less than 12.00 km/h. |
The combination of two or more strength training methods (e.g., high load training, plyometric training) may induce greater running economy improvement, compared to isolated training methods. |
These results are based on 31 studies with moderate to low certainty of evidence for the main outcomes, involving a total of 652 middle- and long-distance runners. |
1 Introduction
2 Methods
2.1 Information Sources and Search Strategy
2.2 Selection Process
Category | Inclusion criteria | Exclusion criteria |
---|---|---|
Population | Amateur and competitive middle- and long-distance runners (i.e., running distances ≥ 1500 m), aged > 16 years old, without restriction to sex or training/competitive level | Subject with injuries, comorbidities, or non-runners endurance athletes |
Intervention | A strength training programme (i.e., HL, SL, PL, ISO, or a combination of them) which was in addition to, or in partial replacement (i.e., matched training load) of endurance running training, lasting ≥ 3 weeks, with ≥ 1 weekly session | The programme includes alternative methods in addition to strength training (e.g., electrical stimulation or body vibration), and/or supplementations (e.g., creatin) |
Comparator | Control group that performed endurance running training but did not receive strength training or received it with low loads (< 40% 1 RM or > 20 RM) | Absence of control group |
Outcome | Running economy was recorded in at least one speed before and after the strength training intervention | Baseline and/or follow-up data not available |
Study design | Randomised and non-randomized controlled studies | Cross-sectional, observational, or case studies |
2.3 Eligibility Criteria
2.4 Data Collection Process
2.4.1 Participants
2.4.2 Strength Training Intervention
2.4.3 Outcome Measurements
2.5 Risk of Bias, Publication Bias and Certainty Assessment
2.6 Effect Measures
2.7 Statistical Analyses
3 Results
3.1 Study Selection
3.2 Study Characteristics
Study | G | Subject characteristics | Strength training intervention | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | Age | BM | H | VO2max | PLv | ST Exp | D | Fq | TS | Exercises | Load | Set × repetition | Rest | Exercise sequence | ||
Ache-Dias et al. [110] | PL | 9 (M = 4; F = 5) | 24 | 63 | 160 | 50 | MT | NR | 8 | 2 | 16 | PL: Continuous jump | BW | 4–6 × 30 s | 5 min | Traditional |
C | 9 (M = 4; F = 5) | 31 | 66 | 170 | 49 | MT | NR | |||||||||
Albracht and Arampatzis [116] | ISO | 13 (M) | 27 | 76 | 180 | NR | MT | NR | 14 | 4 | 56 | ISO: Isometric ankle plantarflexion | 90% MVC | 5 × 4 × 3 s | 3 s | Traditional |
C | 13 (M) | 25 | 75 | 178 | NR | MT | NR | |||||||||
Berryman et al.[114] | SL | 12 (M) | 31 | 76 | 176 | 58 | WT | No | 8 | 1 | 8 | SL: Half squat | Power peak load | 3–6 × 8 | 3 min | Traditional |
PL | 11 (M) | 29 | 75 | 178 | 58 | WT | No | 8 | 1 | 8 | PL: Drop jump (20–60 cm) | BW | 3–6 × 8 | 3 min | Traditional | |
C | 5 (M) | 29 | 76 | 180 | 56 | WT | No | |||||||||
Blagrove et al. [9] | SL + PL | 9 (M = 4; F = 5) | 17 | 58 | 170 | 59 | HT | No | 10 | 2 | 20 | PL: Box jump, a-skip, hurdle jump and land, single leg box jump, high-knees, depth jump SL: Back squat, Romanian deadlift, single leg press, calf raises, rack pull, deadlift, step-up | PL: BW. SL: Moderate load | PL: 3–4 × 6–8. SL: 2–3 × 6–12 | PL: 1.5 min. SL: 3 min | Traditional |
C | 9 (M = 4; F = 5) | 18 | 59 | 172 | 62 | HT | No | |||||||||
Damasceno et al. [101] | HL | 9 (M) | 34 | 68 | 174 | 54 | MT | NR | 8 | 2 | 16 | HL: Half squat, leg press, plantar flexion, knee extension | 2wk: 75–80% 1RM; 2wk: 80–85%1RM; 2wk: 85–90% 1RM; 2wk: 87–93% 1RM | 2–3 × 3–10 | 3 min | Traditional |
C | 9 (M) | 33 | 71 | 174 | 56 | WT | NR | |||||||||
do Carmo et al. [108] | PL | 15 (M) | 33 | 70 | 172 | 55 | WT | No | 8 | 2 | 16 | PL: Squat jump, split scissor jump, double leg bound, alternate leg bound, single leg forward hop, depth jump, double leg hurdle jump, single leg hurdle hop | BW | 2–5 × 6 | ||
C | 13 (M) | 33 | 70 | 172 | 57 | WT | No | Traditional | ||||||||
Ferrauti et al. [97] | HL | 11 (M = 9; F = 2) | 40 | 77 | NR | 52 | WT | No | 8 | 2 | 16 | HL: Leg press, knee extension, knee flexion, hip extension, ankle extension | 87–93% 1RM | 4 × 3–5 | 3 min | Traditional |
C | 11 (M = 7; F = 4) | 40 | 70 | NR | 51 | WT | No | |||||||||
Fletcher et al. [117] | ISO | 6 (M) | 22 | 68 | 180 | 67 | HT | No | 8 | 3 | 24 | ISO: Isometric ankle plantarflexion | 80% MVC | 3 × 4 × 20 s | 1 min | Traditional |
C | 6 (M) | 26 | 64 | 176 | 68 | HT | No | |||||||||
Johnston et al. [136] | HL + SL | 6 (F) | 30 | 57 | 163 | 51 | WT | No | 10 | 3 | 30 | SL: Bent-leg, heel raise, straight-leg heel raise HL: Knee flexion, knee extension, squat, hammer curl, lunge | SL: 60–67% 1RM. HL: 80–85% 1RM | SL: 2 × 12–20. HL: 3 × 6–8 | 2 min | Traditional |
C | 6 (F) | 30 | 52 | 164 | 52 | WT | No | |||||||||
Kelly et al. [100] | HL | 7 (F) | 21 | 66 | 162 | 40 | MT | No | 10 | 3 | 30 | HL: Squat, calf raises, hip extension, hip flexion, hamstring curl | 1wk: 60–70% 1RM; 1wk: 70–80% 1RM; 8wk: ≥ 85% 1RM | 3 × 5 | 3–4 min | Traditional |
C | 9 (F) | 20 | 60 | 166 | 40 | MT | No | |||||||||
Li et al. [20] | HL + PL | 10 (M) | 20 | 58 | 178 | 66 | HT | NR | 8 | 3 | 24 | HL: Back squat, Bulgarian squat, Romanian deadlifts PL: Double leg hurdle hop, single leg hop, drop jump | HL: 80–85% 1RM. PL: BW | HL: 3 × 5 PL: 3 × 6 | 4 min | Complex |
HL | 9 (M) | 21 | 58 | 175 | 66 | HT | NR | 8 | 3 | 24 | HL: Back squat, Bulgarian squat, Romanian deadlift | 80–85% 1RM | 5 × 5 | 3 min | Traditional | |
C | 9 (M) | 21 | 61 | 179 | 66 | HT | NR | 8 | 3 | 24 | LL: Back squat, Bulgarian squat, Romanian deadlift | 40% 1RM | 5 × 20–30 | 1 min | Traditional | |
Luckin-Baldwin et al. [135] | SL + HL | 14 (M = 10; F = 4) | 39 | 76 | 177 | 55 | WT | No | 24 | 2 | 48 | SL + HL: Half squat, glute hamstring raises, hip thrusts, single leg press, single leg seated calf raise, hip flexion, hip abduction | 12wk: ≥ 75% 1RM; 12wk: ≥ 85% 1RM | 1–5 × 1–12 | Traditional | |
C | 11 (M = 9; F = 2) | 36 | 76 | 176 | 53 | WT | No | |||||||||
Lum et al. [105] | PL | 7 (M) | 29 | 66 | 171 | 54 | MT | NR | 6 | 2 | 12 | PL: Alternate leg bounding, double leg and single leg hurdle hop, depth jump | BW | 3–4 × 5–40 | 3 min | Traditional |
C | 7 (M) | 29 | 66 | 171 | 54 | MT | NR | |||||||||
Lum et al. [112] | PL | 9 (M = 6; F = 3) | 38 | 65 | 170 | 51 | WT | Yes | 6 | 2 | 12 | PL: Depth jump, single leg bounding, split jump | BW | 2–4 × 4–5 | 3 min | Traditional |
ISO | 9 (M = 6; F = 3) | 37 | 63 | 173 | 52 | WT | Yes | 6 | 2 | 12 | ISO: Isometric ankle plantarflexion | Maximal isometric force | 3 × 3 × 3 s | 3 min | Traditional | |
C | 8 (M = 6; F = 2) | 32 | 62 | 168 | 50 | WT | Yes | 6 | 2 | 12 | LL: Squat, lunge with knee lift, arabesque | BW | 3 × 30 s | 30 s | Traditional | |
Lundstrom et al. [109] | PL | 11 (M = 7; F = 4) | 21 | 66 | NR | 51 | WT | NR | 12 | 1 | 12 | PL: Horizontal jump, vertical jump, frog hop, alternate leg bound, single leg forward hop, lateral cone jump, forward/backward cone jump, squat jump, lunge jump, depth jump, box jump | BW | 1–2 × 8–20 | 1 min | Traditional |
C | 11 (M = 6; F = 5) | 20 | 74 | NR | 54 | WT | NR | 12 | 1 | 12 | BW | 1–3 × 10–30 | 1 min | |||
Mikkola et al. [137] | SL + PL | 13 (M = 9; F = 4) | 17 | 63 | 177 | 62 | HT | NR | 8 | 3 | 24 | PL: Alternate jump, calf jump, squat jump, hurdle jump SL: Half squats, knee extensions, knee flexions, calf raises | Low–load or BW | 2–3 × 6–10 | Traditional | |
C | 12 (M = 9; F = 3) | 17 | 60 | 172 | 62 | HT | NR | |||||||||
Mikkola et al. [102] | HL | 11 (M) | 36 | 78 | 179 | 51 | MT | Yes | 8 | 2 | 16 | HL: Squat, seated leg press | 85–90% 1RM | 3 × 4–6 | 2–3 min | Traditional |
SL + PL | 10 (M) | 36 | 79 | 181 | 51 | MT | Yes | 8 | 2 | 16 | SL: Squat, seated leg press PL: Squat jump, scissor jump | 0–40% 1RM | SL: 3 × 6. PL: 2 × 5–10 | 2–3 min | Complex | |
C | 6 (M) | 34 | 84 | 181 | 48 | MT | Yes | 8 | 2 | 16 | LL: Squat, lunges | BW | 3 × 40–50 s | 10–20 s | Traditional | |
Millet et al. [103] | HL | 7 (M) | 24 | 67 | 175 | 70 | HT | NR | 14 | 2 | 28 | HL: Hamstring curl, leg press, seated press, squat, leg extension, heel raises | 87–93% 1RM | 3–5 × 3–5 | Traditional | |
C | 8 (M) | 21 | 65 | 175 | 68 | HT | NR | |||||||||
Paavolainen et al. [8] | PL + SL | 10 (M) | 23 | 72 | 179 | 68 | HT | NR | 9 | 2.5 | 22.5 | PL: Alternate jump, bilateral countermovement jump, drop jump, hurdle jump, one-legged SL: Leg press, knee extensor-flexor | PL: BW or barbell. SL: 0–40% 1RM | Traditional | ||
C | 8 (M) | 24 | 70 | 182 | 68 | HT | NR | – | – | – | LL: Leg exercises | BW | 1 × 12 | |||
Pellegrino et al. [12] | PL | 11 (M = 7; F = 4) | 33 | 68 | 172 | 48 | MT | No | 6 | 2.5 | 15 | PL: Squat jump, split scissor jump, double leg bound, alternate leg bound, single leg forward hop, deep knee bend box jump landing, double leg hurdle jump, single leg hurdle hop | BW | 2–3 × 8–15 | Traditional | |
C | 11 (M = 7; F = 4) | 34 | 71 | 171 | 48 | MT | No | |||||||||
Piacentini et al. [19] | SL | 5 (M = 3; F = 2) | 45 | 68 | 170 | NR | MT | NR | 6 | 2 | 12 | SL: Half squat with arm weights, calf exercise (leg press), lunges with arm weights, leg press, eccentric quadriceps contractions, seated calf raises | 70% 1RM | 3 × 10 | 2–3 min | Traditional |
HL | 6 (M = 4; F = 2) | 44 | 72 | 170 | NR | MT | NR | 6 | 2 | 12 | HL: Half squat with arm weights, calf exercise (leg press), lunges with arm weights, eccentric quadriceps contractions, leg press | 85–90% 1RM | 4 × 3–4 | 3–4 min | Traditional | |
C | 5 (M) | 43 | 71 | 175 | NR | MT | NR | |||||||||
Saunders et al. [113] | PL | 7 (M) | 23 | 68 | NR | 68 | HT | Yes | 9 | 2.5 | 26 | PL: Countermovement jump, knee lift, ankle jump, hamstring curls, alternate leg bound, skip for height, single leg ankle jump, continuous hurdle jump, scissor jump for height SL: Leg pressa | 60% 1RM + BW | 1–5 × 6–20 | Complex | |
C | 8 (M) | 25 | 68 | NR | 70 | HT | Yes | |||||||||
Sedano et al. [115] | SL + PL | 6 (M) | 24 | 69 | 181 | 69 | HT | Yes | 12 | 2 | 24 | SL: Barbell squat, lying leg curl, seated calf raises, leg extension PL: Vertical jump over hurdles, horizontal jump | SL: 70% 1RM. PL: BW | SL: 3 × 7. PL: 10 | 5 min | Complex |
SL | 6 (M) | 24 | 66 | 179 | 71 | HT | Yes | 12 | 2 | 24 | SL: Barbell squat, lying leg curl, seated calf raises, leg extension | 40% 1RM | 3 × 20 | 1 min | Traditional | |
C | 6 (M) | 24 | 70 | 185 | 69 | HT | Yes | 12 | 2 | 24 | LL: Squat with band, lying leg curl with band, calf raises with band, leg extension with band | Resistance band | 1 × 25 | 5 min | ||
Skovgaard et al. [104] | HL | 12 (M) | 31 | 77 | 180 | 61 | WT | No | 8 | 4 | 32 | HL: Squat, deadlift, leg press | 2wk 65–67% 1RM; 6wk: HL: 80–90% 1RM | HL: 3 × 8–4 | 3 min | Traditional |
C | 9 (M) | 31 | 77 | 180 | 59 | WT | No | |||||||||
Spurrs et al. [107] | PL | 8 (M) | 25 | 74.7 | 178 | 58 | WT | No | 6 | 2.5 | 15 | PL: Squat jump, split scissor jump, double leg bound, alternate leg bound, single leg forward hop, depth jump, double leg hurdle jump, single leg hurdle hop | BW | 2–3 × 8–15 | Traditional | |
C | 9 (M) | 25 | 70.2 | 178 | 58 | WT | No | |||||||||
Štohanzl et al. [111] | PL | 9 (F) | 32 | 69 | 169 | 39 | MT | No | 10 | 2 | 20 | PL: Calf jump, low skater jump, half squat jump | BW | 3–4 × 12–3 | 2 min | Traditional |
PL | 11 (F) | 32 | 71 | 169 | 34 | MT | No | 10 | 1 | 10 | PL: Calf jump, low skater jump, half squat jump | BW | 3–4 × 12–3 | 2 min | Traditional | |
C | 11 (F) | 32 | 69 | 169 | 37 | MT | No | |||||||||
Støren et al. [99] | HL | 8 (M = 4; F = 4) | 29 | 60 | 171 | 61 | HT | No | 8 | 3 | 24 | HL: Half squat | 90% 1RM | 4 × 4 | 3 min | Traditional |
C | 9 (M = 5; F = 4) | 30 | 71 | 179 | 57 | WT | No | |||||||||
Trowell et al. [119] | SL + PL | 14 (M = 8; F = 6) | 33 | 73 | 173 | 61 | HT | No | 10 | 2 | 20 | PL: Ankle bouncing, hurdle jump (40 cm), high-knee drill or a-skip drill, split squat jump, countermovement jump or drop jump (45 cm) SL: Back squat, single leg deadlift | SL: 70% 1RM. PL: 0–30% BW | SL: 2–5 × 10. PL: 2–5 × many | 3 min | Complex |
C | 14 (M = 9; F = 5) | 34 | 70 | 175 | 66 | HT | No | 10 | 2 | 20 | LL: Sit-up, lunge, among others | BW | ||||
Turner et al. [106] | PL | 10 (M = 4; F = 6) | 31 | 65 | 170 | 50 | WT | NR | 6 | 3 | 18 | PL: Vertical jump, one-legged vertical jump, vertical springing jump, split-squat jump, incline jump | BW | 1 × 5–15 | Traditional | |
C | 8 (M = 4; F = 4) | 27 | 72 | 174 | 54 | WT | NR | |||||||||
Vikmoen et al. [98] | HL | 11 (F) | 35 | 62 | 169 | 52 | WT | No | 11 | 2 | 22 | HL: Half squat, one-legged leg press, standing one-legged hip flexion, ankle plantarflexion | 3wk: 75–85% 1RM; 3wk: 80–87% 1RM; 5wk: 85–90% 1RM | 3 × 4–10 | Traditional | |
C | 8 (F) | 32 | 66 | 170 | 54 | WT | No | |||||||||
Vorup et al. [96] | HL | 9 (M) | 39 | 75 | 181 | 60 | WT | NR | 8 | 2 | 16 | HL: Half squat, leg press, deadlift | 1wk: 75% 1RM; 1wk: 80% 1RM; 2wk: 85% 1RM; 4wk: 90% 1RM | 1–4 × 10–4 | 3 min | Traditional |
C | 7 (M) | 37 | 74 | 184 | 60 | WT | NR |
Study | G | n | Running economy | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Intensity | Mean pre (SD) | Mean post (SD) | |||||||
Measurement | Speed reported | U-shaped RE-speed relationship | Relative to AT | Relative to VO2max (%) | |||||
Ache-Dias et al. [110] | PL | 9 (M = 4; F = 5) | kcal/min | 9.00 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 65.03 | 12.84 (1.61) | 12.57 (1.99) |
C | 9 (M = 4; F = 5) | kcal/min | 9.00 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 65.03 | 12.63 (2.28) | 12.31 (2.23) | |
Albracht & Arampatzis [116] | ISO | 13 (M) | J/m/kg | 10.80 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 4.25 (0.34) | 4.05 (0.32) | |
J/m/kg | 12.60 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 4.27 (0.32) | 4.12 (0.31) | ||||
C | 13 (M) | J/m/kg | 10.80 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 4.11 (0.32) | 4.11 (0.28) | ||
J/m/kg | 12.60 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 4.18 (0.34) | 4.19 (0.30) | ||||
Berryman et al. [114] | SL | 12 (M) | ml/kg/km | 12.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | 73.11 | 207.00 (15.00) | 199.00 (12.00) | |
PL | 11 (M) | ml/kg/km | 12.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | 73.11 | 218.00 (16.00) | 203.00 (13.00) | ||
C | 5 (M) | ml/kg/km | 12.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | 73.11 | 199.00 (18.00) | 199.00 (20.00) | ||
Blagrove et al. [118] | SL + PL | 9 (M = 4; F = 5) | kJ/kg0.67/km | sLTP | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 83.53 | 18.70 (1.30) | 18.10 (1.40) |
kJ/kg0.67/km | sLTP—1.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 77.75 | 18.50 (1.30) | 18.30 (0.90) | |||
kJ/kg0.67/km | sLTP—2.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 71.97 | 18.80 (1.20) | 18.10 (1.50) | |||
C | 9 (M = 4; F = 5) | kJ/kg0.67/km | sLTP | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 83.53 | 18.50 (1.30) | 18.30 (0.80) | |
kJ/kg0.67/km | sLTP—1.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 77.75 | 19.20 (1.40) | 18.50 (1.60) | |||
kJ/kg0.67/km | sLTP—2.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 71.97 | 18.80 (1.30) | 18.70 (1.20) | |||
Damasceno et al. [101] | HL | 9 (M) | ml/kg/min | 12.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 76.57 | 42.50 (3.10) | 41.90 (4.00) |
C | 9 (M) | ml/kg/min | 12.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 76.57 | 41.80 (4.60) | 41.00 (4.20) | |
do Carmo et al. [108] | PL | 15 (M) | ml/kg/min | Avg 11.00 to 12.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 73.95 | 226.05 (18.40) | 215.90 (17.70) |
C | 13 (M) | ml/kg/min | Avg 11.00 to 12.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 73.95 | 224.90 (18.00) | 224.90 (19.90) | |
Ferrauti et al. [97] | HL | 11 (M = 9; F = 2) | ml/kg/min | 10.08 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 71.77 | 36.90 (2.10) | 37.70 (2.90) |
ml/kg/min | 8.64 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 62.56 | 31.70 (1.90) | 33.30 (3.10) | |||
C | 11 (M = 7; F = 4) | ml/kg/min | 10.08 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 71.77 | 37.10 (3.10) | 38.80 (2.80) | |
ml/kg/min | 8.64 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 62.56 | 32.80 (4.30) | 34.1 (3.00) | |||
Fletcher et al. [117] | ISO | 6 (M) | kJ/kg/km | 95% sLT | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 4.46 (0.16) | 4.44 (0.21) | |
75% sLT | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 4.17 (0.33) | 4.21 (0.27) | |||||
85% sLT | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 4.27 (0.18) | 4.26 (0.28) | |||||
C | 6 (M) | kJ/kg/km | 95% sLT | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 4.64 (0.16) | 4.63 (0.16) | ||
75% sLT | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 4.49 (0.22) | 4.50 (0.21) | |||||
85% sLT | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 4.64 (0.16) | 4.63 (0.16) | |||||
Johnston et al. [136] | HL + SL | 6 (F) | ml/kg/min | 13.80 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | 85.59 | 44.50 (1.00) | 42.80 (1.10) | |
12.84 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | 79.80 | 41.60 (1.10) | 39.90 (0.80) | |||||
C | 6 (F) | ml/kg/min | 13.80 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | 85.59 | 42.80 (0.70) | 43.20 (0.70) | ||
12.84 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | 79.80 | 39.80 (0.50) | 40.00 (0.70) | |||||
Kelly et al. [100] | HL | 7 (F) | ml/kg/min | 3 km race pace | < 11.50 km/h | 71.91 | 27.50 (3.60) | 29.30 (2.60) | |
C | 9 (F) | ml/kg/min | 3 km race pace | < 11.50 km/h | 71.91 | 29.60 (4.60) | 30.20 (7.00) | ||
Li et al. [20] | HL + PL | 10 (M) | ml/kg/min | 16.00 km/h | > 14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 91.67 | 60.77 (4.17) | 56.09 (2.55) |
ml/kg/min | 12.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 72.08 | 46.62 (3.2) | 44.20 (2.32) | |||
ml/kg/min | 14.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 81.61 | 54.45 (3.18) | 50.17 (3.04) | |||
HL | 9 (M) | ml/kg/min | 16.00 km/h | > 14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 91.67 | 59.60 (3.04) | 57.88 (4.11) | |
ml/kg/min | 12.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 72.08 | 47.01 (3.14) | 45.06 (3.82) | |||
ml/kg/min | 14.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 81.61 | 53.41 (3.26) | 50.78 (4.07) | |||
C | 9 (M) | ml/kg/min | 16.00 km/h | > 14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 91.67 | 61.00 (3.00) | 61.35 (1.79) | |
ml/kg/min | 12.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 72.08 | 47.81 (3.24) | 45.71 (3.05) | |||
ml/kg/min | 14.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 81.61 | 53.95 (2.27) | 52.33 (2.31) | |||
Luckin-Baldwin et al. [135] | SL + HL | 14 (M = 10; F = 4) | ml/kg0.75/min | Different speeds | 665.48 (53.81) | 633.14 (59.37) | |||
C | 11 (M = 9; F = 2) | ml/kg0.75/min | Different speeds | 685.84 (45.18) | 670.42 (65.78) | ||||
Lum et al. [105] | PL | 7 (M) | ml/kg/min | 12.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 83.47 | 45.30 (1.80) | 44.60 (2.30) |
ml/kg/min | 10.00 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 70.54 | 37.90 (2.10) | 36.80 (1.70) | |||
C | 7 (M) | ml/kg/min | 12.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 83.47 | 45.10 (3.40) | 44.70 (4.10) | |
ml/kg/min | 10.00 km/h | ≤ AT | 70.54 | 38.50 (3.30) | 37.30 (3.10) | ||||
Lum et al. [112] | PL | 9 (M = 6; F = 3) | J/kg/km | F: 10.00 km/h; M: 12.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | 69.40 | 1.08 (0.06) | 1.07 (0.06) | |
J/kg/km | F: 12.00 km/h; M: 14.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | 82.02 | 1.09 (0.07) | 1.08 (0.07) | ||||
ISO | 9 (M = 6; F = 3) | J/kg/km | F: 10.00 km/h; M: 12.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | 69.40 | 1.06 (0.06) | 1.04 (0.08) | ||
J/kg/km | F: 12.00 km/h; M: 14.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | 82.02 | 1.08 (0.10) | 1.04 (0.09) | ||||
C | 8 (M = 6; F = 2) | J/kg/km | F: 10.00 km/h; M: 12.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | 69.40 | 1.13 (0.12) | 1.11 (0.07) | ||
J/kg/km | F: 12.00 km/h; M: 14.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | 82.02 | 1.12 (0.12) | 1.10 (0.06) | ||||
Lundstrom et al. [109] | PL | 11 (M = 7; F = 4) | ml/kg/min | Avg values over incremental test | 216.30 (17.90) | 200.20 (29.50) | |||
C | 11 (M = 6; F = 5) | ml/kg/min | Avg values over incremental test | 218.60 (19.40) | 192.90 (37.00) | ||||
Mikkola et al. [137] | SL + PL | 13 (M = 9; F = 4) | ml/kg/min | 14.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | 83.01 | 52.10 (3.10) | 50.60 (3.60) | |
ml/kg/min | 10.00 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | 61.43 | 38.20 (2.80) | 38.70 (3.00) | ||||
ml/kg/min | 12.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | 72.54 | 45.00 (3.10) | 44.10 (3.30) | ||||
ml/kg/min | 13.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | 77.05 | 48.10 (3.20) | 47.40 (3.30) | ||||
C | 12 (M = 9; F = 3) | ml/kg/min | 14.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | 83.01 | 51.00 (4.30) | 52.30 (3.90) | ||
ml/kg/min | 10.00 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | 61.43 | 38.10 (3.10) | 38.90 (3.00) | ||||
ml/kg/min | 12.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | 72.54 | 45.10 (3.70) | 45.90 (3.90) | ||||
ml/kg/min | 13.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | 77.05 | 47.60 (4.10) | 49.00 (3.40) | ||||
Mikkola et al. [102] | HL | 11 (M) | ml/kg/min | 12.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | > AT | 86.06 | 218.00 (10.00) | 219.00 (11.00) |
ml/kg/min | 10.00 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 74.07 | 224.00 (10.00) | 225.00 (11.00) | |||
SL + PL | 10 (M) | ml/kg/min | 12.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | > AT | 86.06 | 212.00 (17.00) | 210.00 (16.00) | |
ml/kg/min | 10.00 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 74.07 | 217.00 (18.00) | 217.00 (20.00) | |||
C | 6 (M) | ml/kg/min | 12.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | > AT | 86.06 | 208.00 (15.00) | 206.00 (18.00) | |
ml/kg/min | 10.00 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 74.07 | 216.00 (14.00) | 217.00 (22.00) | |||
Millet et al. [103] | HL | 7 (M) | ml/kg/km | 75% sVO2max | > 14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 75.00 | 193.60 (4.30) | 180.30 (20.00) |
ml/kg/km | 92% sVO2max | > 14.50 km/h | > AT | 92.00 | 196.40 (5.50) | 185.40 (16.30) | |||
C | 8 (M) | ml/kg/km | 75% sVO2max | > 14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 75.00 | 189.80 (13.10) | 203.20 (20.20) | |
ml/kg/km | 92% sVO2max | > 14.50 km/h | > AT | 92.00 | 194.60 (22.30) | 205.20 (18.10) | |||
Paavolainen et al. [8] | PL + SL | 10 (M) | ml/kg/min | 15.01 km/h | > 14.50 km/h | > AT | 78.17 | 51.80 (1.20) | 47.60 (1.30) |
C | 8 (M) | ml/kg/min | 15.01 km/h | > 14.50 km/h | > AT | 78.17 | 50.70 (1.50) | 51.40 (2.10) | |
Pellegrino et al. [12] | PL | 11 (M = 7; F = 4) | J/kg/min | 12.10 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 927.00 (28.00) | 920.00 (29.00) | |
J/kg/min | 7.74 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 646.00 (17.00) | 643.00 (20.00) | ||||
J/kg/min | 9.18 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 703.00 (17.00) | 696.00 (18.00) | ||||
J/kg/min | 10.62 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 789.00 (19.00) | 779.00 (28.00) | ||||
J/kg/min | 13.53 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | > AT | 1070.00 (39.00) | 1095.00 (35.00) | ||||
J/kg/min | 14.97 km/h | > 14.50 km/h | > AT | 1220.00 (50.00) | 1217.00 (34.00) | ||||
J/kg/min | 16.41 km/h | > 14.50 km/h | > AT | 1337.00 (84.00) | 1415.00 (52.00) | ||||
C | 11 (M = 7; F = 4) | J/kg/min | 12.10 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 998.00 (30.00) | 991.00 (31.00) | ||
J/kg/min | 7.74 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 673.00 (17.00) | 685.00 (20.00) | ||||
J/kg/min | 9.18 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 746.00 (17.00) | 763.00 (18.00) | ||||
J/kg/min | 10.62 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 857.00 (19.00) | 882.00 (28.00) | ||||
J/kg/min | 13.53 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | > AT | 1163.00 (41.00) | 1131.00 (37.00) | ||||
J/kg/min | 14.97 km/h | > 14.50 km/h | > AT | 1383.00 (59.00) | 1340.00 (41.00) | ||||
J/kg/min | 16.41 km/h | > 14.50 km/h | > AT | 1518.00 (168.00) | 1451.00 (105.00) | ||||
Piacentini et al. [19] | SL | 5 (M = 3; F = 2) | ml/kg/min | Avg 11.75 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | 42.30 (7.40) | 42.20 (8.20) | ||
ml/kg/min | Avg 9.75 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 35.30 (6.20) | 34.90 (7.00) | ||||
ml/kg/min | Avg 10.75 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 39.20 (6.90) | 38.00 (7.10) | ||||
HL | 6 (M = 4; F = 2) | ml/kg/min | Avg 11.75 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | 42.80 (5.00) | 44.20 (4.00) | |||
ml/kg/min | Avg 9.75 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 37.00 (5.20) | 36.20 (4.20) | ||||
ml/kg/min | Avg 10.75 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 42.10 (4.00) | 39.50 (3.50) | ||||
C | 5 (M) | ml/kg/min | Avg 11.75 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | 43.40 (3.60) | 42.90 (40) | |||
ml/kg/min | Avg 9.75 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 34.70 (2.40) | 34.60 (2.30) | ||||
ml/kg/min | Avg 10.75 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 39.50 (2.80) | 39.20 (0.80) | ||||
Saunders et al. [113] | PL | 7 (M) | J/kg/min | 16.00 km/h | > 14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 81.04 | 1190.80 (87.20) | 1162.80 (116.10) |
J/kg/min | 18.00 km/h | > 14.50 km/h | > AT | 90.96 | 1539.20 (292.20) | 1481.40 (216.60) | |||
C | 8 (M) | J/kg/min | 16.00 km/h | > 14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 81.04 | 1209.40 (41.90) | 1138.60 (133.60) | |
J/kg/min | 18.00 km/h | > 14.50 km/h | > AT | 90.96 | 1528.20 (256.60) | 1435.70 (176.90) | |||
Sedano et al. [115] | SL + PL | 6 (M) | ml/kg/min | 16.00 km/h | > 14.50 km/h | 74.64 | 50.92 (0.89) | 49.37 (1.03) | |
ml/kg/min | 12.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | 55.98 | 38.69 (1.05) | 37.25 (0.75) | ||||
ml/kg/min | 14.00 km/h | > 14.50 km/h | 65.31 | 44.80 (1.11) | 42.48 (1.05) | ||||
SL | 6 (M) | ml/kg/min | 16.00 km/h | > 14.50 km/h | 74.64 | 50.60 (1.27) | 49.84 (1.53) | ||
ml/kg/min | 12.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | 55.98 | 38.92 (1.41) | 37.92 (1.50) | ||||
ml/kg/min | 14.00 km/h | > 14.50 km/h | 65.31 | 45.40 (1.09) | 44.30 (1.19) | ||||
C | 6 (M) | ml/kg/min | 16.00 km/h | > 14.50 km/h | 74.64 | 50.67 (0.95) | 50.69 (0.94) | ||
ml/kg/min | 12.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | 55.98 | 38.66 (1.22) | 38.59 (1.02) | ||||
ml/kg/min | 14.00 km/h | > 14.50 km/h | 65.31 | 46.95 (2.82) | 46.88 (2.14) | ||||
Skovgaard et al. [104] | HL | 12 (M) | ml/kg/km | 12.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | 62.71 | 195.00 (4.00) | 189.00 (4.00) | |
C | 9 (M) | ml/kg/km | 12.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | 62.71 | 180.00 (4.00) | 178.00 (6.00) | ||
Spurrs et al. [107] | PL | 8 (M) | ml/kg/min | 14.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 55.43 | 33.35 (5.15) | 32.23 (4.27) |
ml/kg/min | 12.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 43.44 | 26.05 (4.11) | 24.30 (3.68) | |||
ml/kg/min | 16.00 km/h | > 14.50 km/h | > AT | 69.84 | 41.96 (6.14) | 40.22 (5.43) | |||
C | 9 (M) | ml/kg/min | 14.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 55.43 | 30.62 (3.29) | 30.46 (3.98) | |
ml/kg/min | 12.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 43.44 | 24.08 (2.87) | 24.21 (3.37) | |||
ml/kg/min | 16.00 km/h | > 14.50 km/h | > AT | 69.84 | 38.64 (4.95) | 38.85 (5.33) | |||
Štohanzl et al. [111] | PL | 9 (F) | ml/kg/min | sVT2 | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 80.74 | 28.90 (2.70) | 28.40 (2.60) |
ml/kg/min | 7.00 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 73.77 | 28.10 (2.50) | 26.80 (3.10) | |||
ml/kg/min | 9.00 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | > AT | 87.30 | 33.10 (2.70) | 32.10 (3.10) | |||
PL | 11 (F) | ml/kg/min | sVT2 | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 83.88 | 31.20 (3.50) | 30.80 (3.50) | |
ml/kg/min | 7.00 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 68.99 | 24.60 (4.20) | 23.60 (4.90) | |||
ml/kg/min | 9.00 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 81.69 | 29.00 (5.00) | 28.60 (5.30) | |||
C | 11 (F) | ml/kg/min | sVT2 | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 83.88 | 30.20 (3.40) | 31.60 (3.80) | |
ml/kg/min | 7.00 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 68.99 | 25.90 (1.90) | 25.30 (2.40) | |||
ml/kg/min | 9.00 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 81.69 | 30.80 (2.20) | 30.50 (1.90) | |||
Støren et al. [99] | HL | 8 (M = 4; F = 4) | ml/kg0.75/min | 70% sVO2max | ≤ AT | 70.00 | 0.68 (0.04) | 0.65 (0.03) | |
C | 9 (M = 5; F = 4) | ml/kg0.75/min | 70% sVO2max | ≤ AT | 70.00 | 0.68 (0.05) | 0.69 (0.05) | ||
Trowell et al. [119] | SL + PL | 14 (M = 8; F = 6) | kJ/kg/min | 12.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 66.23 | 4.51 (0.40) | 4.50 (0.33) |
C | 14 (M = 9; F = 5) | kJ/kg/min | 12.00 km/h | 11.50–14.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 66.23 | 4.43 (0.41) | 4.35 (0.37) | |
Turner et al. [106] | PL | 10 (M = 4; F = 6) | m/ml/kg | 11.27 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | 5.20 (0.34) | 5.32 (0.39) | ||
m/ml/kg | 9.65 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | 5.14 (0.36) | 5.30 (0.36) | |||||
C | 8 (M = 4; F = 4) | m/ml/kg | 11.27 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | 5.07 (0.42) | 5.04 (0.45) | |||
m/ml/kg | 9.65 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | 5.21 (0.37) | 5.12 (0.28) | |||||
Vikmoen et al. [98] | HL | 11 (F) | ml/kg/min | 10.00 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 85.74 | 45.83 (1.65) | 46.13 (1.73) |
C | 8 (F) | ml/kg/min | 10.00 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 85.74 | 45.39 (1.48) | 45.35 (1.40) | |
Vorup et al. [96] | HL | 9 (M) | ml/kg/min | Avg 15.00 km/h | > 14.50 km/h | > AT | 81.74 | 54.70 (6.00) | 52.50 (4.60) |
ml/kg/min | Avg 11.00 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 59.95 | 42.40 (4.80) | 40.30 (2.70) | |||
C | 7 (M) | ml/kg/min | Avg 15.00 km/h | > 14.50 km/h | > AT | 81.74 | 53.10 (4.20) | 53.60 (6.10) | |
ml/kg/min | Avg 11.00 km/h | < 11.50 km/h | ≤ AT | 59.95 | 42.30 (1.90) | 42.30 (3.70) |
3.3 Risk of Bias, Publication Bias and Certainty Assessment
Certainty assessment | No. of participants | Certainty | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
No. of studies | Risk of bias | Inconsistency | Indirectness | Imprecision | Publication bias | Strength training | Control group | |
High load training (follow-up: mean 8.6 weeks) | ||||||||
11 | Not serious | Not serious | Not serious | Seriousa | Undetected | 108 | 98 | ⨁⨁⨁◯ Moderate |
Submaximal training (follow-up: mean 8.7 weeks) | ||||||||
3 | Not serious | Not serious | Not serious | Seriousa | Undetected | 23 | 16 | ⨁⨁⨁◯ Moderate |
Plyometric training (follow-up: mean 7.9 weeks) | ||||||||
11 | Not serious | Not serious | Not serious | Seriousa | Undetected | 118 | 100 | ⨁⨁⨁◯ Moderate |
Isometric training (follow-up: mean 9.3 weeks) | ||||||||
3 | Not serious | Not serious | Not serious | Seriousa | Undetected | 28 | 27 | ⨁⨁⨁◯ Moderate |
Combined methods training (follow-up: mean 11.5 weeks) | ||||||||
9 | Seriousb | Not serious | Not serious | Seriousa | Undetected | 82 | 73 | ⨁⨁◯◯ Low |
3.4 Main Effects
3.5 Sub-group and Meta-regression Analysis
High load training | n groups | J | β0 Hedges' g (SE) | 95% CI | t0(df), p value | β1 Hedges' g (SE) | 95% CI | t1(df), p value | F(df1, df2), p value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Subject characteristics | |||||||||
Sex | 11 | 19 | F(2,16) = 1.076, p = 0.364 | ||||||
Male | 6 | 11 | − 0.360 (0.162) | − 0.703 to − 0.170 | t(16) = − 2.226, p = 0.041 | ||||
Female | 2 | 2 | 0.203 (0.349) | − 0.536 to 0.943 | t(16) = − 1.465, p = 0.162 | 0.563 (0.384) | − 0.252 to 1.378 | t(16) = 1.465, p = 0.162 | |
Male–female | 3 | 6 | − 0.280 (0.226) | − 0.758 to 0.198 | t(16) = − 0.289, p = 0.777 | 0.080 (0.278) | − 0.508 to 0.668 | t(16) = 0.289, p = 0.777 | |
Age | 11 | 19 | − 0.724 (0.519) | − 1.818 to 0.371 | t(17) = − 1.395, p = 0.181 | 0.014 (0.016) | − 0.019 to 0.047 | t(17) = 0.908, p = 0.377 | F(1,17) = 0.824, p = 0.377 |
Body mass | 11 | 19 | − 0.973 (1.259) | − 3.629 to 1.682 | t(17) = − 0.773, p = 0.450 | 0.010 (0.018) | − 0.028 to 0.048 | t(17) = 0.565, p = 0.58 | F(1,17) = 0.319, p = 0.580 |
Height | 10 | 17 | 4.845 (5.159) | − 6.15 to 15.841 | t(15) = 0.939, p = 0.362 | − 0.029 (0.029) | − 0.092 to 0.033 | t(15) = − 0.996, p = 0.335 | F(1,15) = 0.992, p = 0.335 |
VO2max | 10 | 16 | 1.991 (0.873) | 0.117 to 3.864 | t(14) = 2.279, p = 0.039 | − 0.040 (0.015) | − 0.072 to − 0.007 | t(14) = − 2.619, p = 0.02 | F(1,14) = 6.862, p = 0.020 |
Performance level | 11 | 19 | F(2,16) = 2.837, p = 0.088 | ||||||
Moderately trained | 5 | 8 | 0.018 (0.198) | − 0.401 to 0.437 | t(16) = 0.089, p = 0.930 | ||||
Well trained | 3 | 5 | − 0.201 (0.187) | − 0.597 to 0.195 | t(16) = − 1.076, p = 0.298 | − 0.219 (0.272) | − 0.796 to 0.358 | t(16) = − 0.804, p = 0.433 | |
Highly trained | 3 | 6 | − 0.651 (0.206) | − 1.089 to − 0.214 | t(16) = − 3.159, p = 0.006 | − 0.669 (0.286) | − 1.275 to − 0.064 | t(16) = − 2.343, p = 0.032 | |
Strength training experience | 7 | 10 | F(1,8) = 0.795, p = 0.399 | ||||||
No | 6 | 8 | − 0.232 (0.159) | − 0.599 to 0.135 | t(8) = − 1.459, p = 0.183 | ||||
Yes | 1 | 2 | 0.103 (0.341) | − 0.683 to 0.890 | t(8) = 0.303, p = 0.770 | 0.336 (0.376) | − 0.532 to 1.204 | t(8) = 0.892, p = 0.399 | |
Strength training intervention | |||||||||
Weeks | 11 | 19 | 0.533 (0.487) | − 0.494 to 1.560 | t(17) = 1.095, p = 0.289 | − 0.093 (0.055) | − 0.21 to 0.024 | t(17) = − 1.682, p = 0.111 | F(1,17) = 2.828, p = 0.111 |
Sessions per week | 11 | 19 | − 0.214 (0.512) | − 1.295 to 0.868 | t(17) = − 0.417, p = 0.682 | − 0.022 (0.206) | − 0.456 to 0.415 | t(17) = − 0.106, p = 0.917 | F(1,17) = 0.011, p = 0.917 |
Total sessions | 11 | 19 | 0.139 (0.406) | − 0.716 to 0.995 | t(17) = 0.344, p = 0.735 | − 0.020 (0.019) | − 0.060 to 0.020 | t(17) = − 1.042, p = 0.312 | F(1,17) = 1.086, p = 0.312 |
Speed assessed | |||||||||
Absolute speed (continuous) | 10 | 18 | 1.178 (0.588) | − 0.069 to 2.424 | t(16) = 2.003, p = 0.062 | − 0.117 (0.048) | − 0.219 to − 0.015 | t(16) = − 2.440, p = 0.027 | F(1,16) = 5.955, p = 0.027 |
Absolute speed (category) | 10 | 18 | F(1,16) = 6.573, p = 0.021 | ||||||
≤ 12.00 km/h | 9 | 13 | − 0.060 (0.130) | − 0.336 to 0.216 | t(16) = − 0.460, p = 0.652 | ||||
> 12.00 km/h | 3 | 5 | − 0.713 (0.219) | − 1.177 to − 0.249 | t(16) = − 3.258, p = 0.005 | − 0.653 (0.255) | − 1.193 to − 0.113 | t(16) = − 2.564, p = 0.021 | |
U-shaped RE-speed relationship (category) | 10 | 18 | F(2,15) = 3.552, p = 0.055 | ||||||
< 11.50 km/h | 6 | 8 | − 0.136 (0.167) | − 0.491 to 0.220 | t(15) = − 0.814, p = 0.429 | ||||
11.50–14.50 km/h | 5 | 5 | 0.059 (0.209) | − 0.386 to 0.504 | t(15) = 0.282, p = 0.782 | 0.195 (0.267) | − 0.375 to 0.764 | t(15) = 0.728, p = 0.478 | |
> 14.50 km/h | 3 | 5 | − 0.713 (0.219) | − 1.18 to − 0.247 | t(15) = − 3.258, p = 0.005 | − 0.577 (0.275) | − 1.164 to 0.009 | t(15) = − 2.098, p = 0.053 | |
Speed relative to AT | 9 | 16 | F(1,14) = 0.057, p = 0.815 | ||||||
≤ AT | 9 | 13 | − 0.322 (0.156) | − 0.658 to 0.013 | t(14) = − 2.060, p = 0.059 | ||||
> AT | 3 | 3 | − 0.403 (0.314) | − 1.077 to 0.271 | t(14) = − 1.282, p = 0.221 | − 0.081 (0.338) | − 0.806 to 0.645 | t(14) = − 0.238, p = 0.815 | |
Speed relative to VO2max | 10 | 16 | 0.189 (1.019) | − 1.996 to 2.374 | t(14) = 0.186, p = 0.855 | − 0.006 (0.013) | − 0.035 to 0.023 | t(14) = − 0.464, p = 0.650 | F(1,14) = 14.15, p = 0.439 |
Plyometric training | n groups | J | β0 Hedges' g (SE) | 95% CI | t0(df), p value | β1 Hedges' g (SE) | 95% CI | t1(df), p value | F(df1, df2), p value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Subject characteristics | |||||||||
Sex | 12 | 28 | F(2,25) = 1.068, p = 0.359 | ||||||
Male | 5 | 9 | − 0.247 (0.157) | − 0.569 to 0.076 | t(25) = − 1.574, p = 0.128 | ||||
Female | 2 | 6 | − 0.266 (0.206) | − 0.690 to 0.157 | t(25) = − 1.295, p = 0.207 | − 0.020 (0.258) | − 0.552 to 0.513 | t(25) = − 0.076, p = 0.940 | |
Male–female | 5 | 13 | − 0.002 (0.119) | − 0.247 to 0.243 | t(25) = − 0.018, p = 0.986 | 0.244 (0.197) | − 0.161 to 0.650 | t(25) = 1.242, p = 0.226 | |
Age | 12 | 28 | − 0.016 (0.708) | − 1.472 to 1.440 | t(26) = − 0.023, p = 0.982 | − 0.004 (0.023) | − 0.052 to 0.044 | t(26) = − 0.165, p = 0.870 | F(1,26) = 0.027, p = 0.870 |
Body mass | 12 | 28 | 3.834 (2.463) | − 1.229 to 8.897 | t(26) = 1.557, p = 0.132 | − 0.057 (0.036) | − 0.131 to 0.016 | t(26) = − 1.609, p = 0.120 | F(1,26) = 2.588, p = 0.120 |
Height | 10 | 25 | 7.055 (5.049) | − 3.390 to 17.50 | t(23) = 1.397, p = 0.176 | − 0.042 (0.029) | − 0.103 to 0.019 | t(23) = − 1.432, p = 0.166 | F(1,23) = 2.052, p = 0.166 |
VO2max | 12 | 28 | − 0.289 (0.556) | − 1.433 to 0.854 | t(26) = − 0.520, p = 0.607 | 0.003 (0.011) | − 0.019 to 0.026 | t(26) = 0.291, p = 0.773 | F(1,26) = 0.085, p = 0.773 |
Performance level | 12 | 28 | |||||||
Moderately trained | 5 | 16 | − 0.06 (0.114) | − 0.294 to 0.174 | t(25) = − 0.528, p = 0.602 | F(1,25) = 1.342, p = 0.280 | |||
Well trained | 6 | 10 | − 0.283 (0.143) | − 0.577 to 0.110 | t(25) = − 1.982, p = 0.059 | − 0.223 (0.182) | − 0.598 to 0.153 | t(25) = − 1.222, p = 0.233 | |
Highly trained | 1 | 2 | 0.244 (0.346) | − 0.469 to 0.956 | t(25) = 0.704, p = 0.488 | 0.304 (0.364) | − 0.446 to 1.054 | t(25) = 0.834, p = 0.412 | |
Strength training experience | 8 | 22 | F(1,20) = 2.176, p = 0.156 | ||||||
No | 6 | 18 | − 0.221 (0.122) | − 0.476 to 0.033 | t(20) = − 1.815, p = 0.085 | ||||
Yes | 2 | 4 | 0.192 (0.252) | − 0.334 to 0.718 | t(20) = 0.761, p = 0.455 | 0.413 (0.280) | − 0.171 to 0.998 | t(20) = 1.475, p = 0.156 | |
Strength training intervention | |||||||||
Weeks | 12 | 28 | − 0.158 (0.373) | − 0.925 to 0.608 | t(26) = − 0.425, p = 0.674 | 0.004 (0.048) | − 0.096 to 0.103 | t(26) = 0.076, p = 0.940 | F(1,26) = 0.006, p = 0.940 |
Sessions per week | 12 | 28 | − 0.152 (0.344) | − 0.858 to 0.554 | t(26) = − 0.442, p = 0.662 | 0.011 (0.156) | − 0.310 to 0.331 | t(26) = 0.069, p = 0.945 | F(1,26) = 0.005, p = 0.945 |
Total sessions | 12 | 28 | − 0.238 (0.354) | − 0.966 to 0.490 | t(26) = − 0.672, p = 0.507 | 0.007 (0.022) | − 0.039 to 0.053 | t(26) = 0.320, p = 0.751 | F(1,26) = 0.103, p = 0.751 |
Speed assessed | |||||||||
Absolute speed (continuous) | 11 | 25 | − 0.755 (0.378) | − 1.538 to 0.028 | t(23) = − 1.995, p = 0.058 | 0.055 (0.031) | − 0.010 to 0.119 | t(23) = 1.737, p = 0.096 | F(1,23) = 3.016, p = 0.096 |
Absolute speed (category) | 11 | 27 | F(1,25) = 6.526, p = 0.017 | ||||||
≤ 12.00 km/h | 10 | 18 | − 0.307 (0.110) | − 0.532 to 0.081 | t(25) = − 2.802, p = 0.010 | ||||
> 12.00 km/h | 5 | 9 | 0.163 (0.148) | − 0.141 to 0.468 | t(25) = 1.104, p = 0.280 | 0.470 (0.184) | 0.091 to 0.849 | t(25) = 2.555, p = 0.017 | |
U-shaped RE-speed relationship (category) | 11 | 27 | F(1,24) = 2.187, p = 0.134 | ||||||
< 11.50 km/h | 8 | 15 | − 0.276 (0.118) | − 0.521 to − 0.032 | t(24) = − 2.335, p = 0.028 | ||||
11.50–14.50 km/h | 5 | 7 | − 0.108 (0.174) | − 0.467 to 0.251 | t(24) = − 0.620, p = 0.541 | 0.169 (0.210) | − 0.265 to 0.603 | t(24) = 0.802, p = 0.431 | |
> 14.50 km/h | 3 | 5 | 0.210 (0.202) | − 0.206 to 0.626 | t(24) = 1.042, p = 0.308 | 0.486 (0.234) | 0.004 to 0.969 | t(24) = 2.080, p = 0.048 | |
Speed relative to AT | 8 | 22 | F(1,20) = 2.722, p = 0.115 | ||||||
≤ AT | 8 | 16 | − 0.246 (0.114) | − 0.484 to 0.008 | t(20) = − 2.155, p = 0.044 | ||||
> AT | 4 | 6 | 0.109 (0.183) | − 0.804 to 0.094 | t(20) = − 1.650, p = 0.115 | 0.355 (0.215) | − 0.094 to 0.804 | t(20) = 1.650, p = 0.115 | |
Speed relative to VO2max | 9 | 18 | − 0.349 (0.741) | − 1.920 to 1.222 | t(16) = − 0.471, p = 0.644 | 0.001 (0.010) | − 0.020 to 0.023 | t(16) = 0.144, p = 0.887 | F(1,16) = 0.021, p = 0.887 |