Background
As a common infectious disease among children, hand-foot-mouth disease (HFMD) has aroused wide attention all over the world [
1‐
5]. HFMD is mainly caused by a group of enterovirus, mainly by enterovirus 71(EV71) and coxsackie virus A16 (Cox A16) [
4,
6‐
8], it is characterized by fever, oral ulcers, and skin eruptions on hands, feet, buttocks [
9‐
11], and transmission occurs through the direct contact with saliva, feces, vesicular fluid, or respiratory droplets of the infected individual, and indirectly by contaminated articles [
12,
13].
Generally, the state of HFMD is mild and self-limited. However, many countries or regions have experienced pandemics of severe or fatal HFMD cases in recent years, especially Asia-Pacific countries [
14‐
18]. For China, HFMD is also a major public health problem, and the study of Xing W, et al. showed that about 500 ~ 900 people in China died because of the severe HFMD every year, mainly in children [
1], and the mortality rate among children with severe HFMD is also high worldwide [
19‐
22]. Severe HFMD poses a great threat to one’s health and life, especially the child, as well as bringing psychological and financial burden burdens for families, therefore, the research and investigation of severe HFMD are important.
Previous studies about HFMD were mainly focused on the features of mild HFMD, therefore, the incidence of HFMD worldwide has been controlled to a certain degree [
23‐
25]. However, to our knowledge, relevant researches about the clinical or epidemiological characteristics of severe HFMD patients or fatal cases was few, which may impede the further reduction in case fatality. Since Chongqing is one of the districts in China affected by the outbreaks of severe HFMD [
1,
24] and studies have shown the incidence of HFMD in Chongqing was higher than the national incidence, as well as that in many countries or regions [
24], the present study aimed to investigate the clinical and epidemiological characteristics of severe HFMD and identify risk factors of severe HFMD in our population by taking Chongqing as an example, which may provide theoretical support for further prevention, diagnosis and treatment of severe HFMD.
Discussion
Severe hand-foot-mouth disease progresses rapidly and may develop severe complications which could be life-threatening [
32‐
35]. Therefore, screening children with severe HFMD for the abnormal vital signs is important in predicting impending deadly complications and allowing the timely initiation of appropriate interventions [
31]. This study aims to describe the clinical and epidemiological features of severe hand-foot-and-mouth disease and identify the risk factors of death in severe HFMD children.
Among the five general characteristics in this study, aged 1 ~ 3 years, enterovirus type 71 infections and failing ill in winter, were the risk factors for the death. Similar to previous reports, in this study, most of the children patients of severe HFMD were under 3 years old, which is probably because the immune function of these children are not yet mature [
36‐
38]. Enterovirus 71 infection is the main strain of severe and fatal HFMD all over the world [
39‐
41]. Analogously, children with EV71 infection accounted for a relatively high proportion of fatal cases in this study, which may be related to the virulence and pathogenicity of EV71 [
4]. EV71 was reported to be strongly neurotropic, it can cause damage to cerebral cortex, pons, brainstem, cerebellum and spinal cord [
42]. And the injury of central nervous system can cause the abnormality of sympathetic nerve activity, causing clinical symptoms like consciousness disorders, convulsion, etc., while the blood pressure and the heart rate of the patient also change [
10]. However, the onset of EV-71 infection was reported to be insidious and cause rapid progression of neurological damage, sometimes it can lead to death within the day of detecting neurological complications [
36]. Therefore, the neurological abnormalities in children with severe HFMD should be paid attention to, and the development of EV71 detection methods with high sensitivity are also needed. Moreover, it is worth noting that in this study, although the incidence of severe HFMD is higher in summer or spring, the mortality rate is higher in winter, which indicates that attention should be paid to the timely detection and treatment of HFMD in winter.
Among the five family characteristics, more than one children in home, being taken care of by grandparents and the caregivers’ education not more than 9 years, were the risk factors for the death of severe HFMD, while neighborhood children having HFMD disease, being taken care of by parents and caregivers’ education more than 9 years were the protective factors of the poor prognosis (death). These results indicate that the timely detection of severe HFMD is important and family caregivers need to be educated about hand-foot-mouth disease and related symptoms.
In the analysis of general symptoms or signs of HFMD, having fever more than 3 days is the risk factor of poor prognosis, while having rash more than 3 days, having herpes in the oral cavity or on cheek may be the protective factors, the reason is probably because people are more likely to initially diagnose HFMD by finding the rash. In the analysis of neurological complications, consciousness disorders, vomiting, abnormal pupillary light reflex, general weakness were associated with the death because of severe HFMD. When focused on respiratory complications, seven risk factors were identified to be the factors associated with the poor prognosis in this study, namely the presence of repeated cough, tachypnea, moist rales, white frothy sputum, pink frothy sputum, and cyanosis on lips or the whole body. In the analysis of circulatory complications, tachycardia, arrhythmia, cold limbs, pale complexion, weakened pulse were reported as predictive factors for a fatal course of severe HFMD.
Researches mainly attributed the death of severe HFMD to refractory heart failure and neurogenic pulmonary edema (NPE) [
43‐
45]. At present, the mechanism of NPE is thought to be caused by specific injury in brainstem or medulla oblongata and inflammatory response [
32,
46,
47]. Central nervous system lesions and inflammatory response can increase the intracranial pressure, which causes dysfunction of the optic hypothalamus and medullary solitary tract nucleus and complications such as vomiting, consciousness disorders, Convulsion, excessive sympathetic excitation, etc. occur. Then the level of serum catecholamine (epinephrine, norepinephrine, etc.) was significantly increased, so systemic vasoconstriction and hemodynamic changes sharply, systemic circulation resistance and arterial blood pressure increase sharply, and left ventricular ejection will reduce, then large amounts of blood flow from the systemic circulation will enter into the pulmonary circulation, the effective filtration pressure of pulmonary capillary will increase rapidly, and a large amount of fluid retention in the lung tissue clearance, causing severe pulmonary edema. Blood flow impact may induced vascular endothelial cell damage, vasoactive substances like histamine and bradykinin are released in large quantities, then vascular permeability increased and the plasma extravasation is massive, which intensifying the degree of pulmonary edema. After the occurrence of NPE, the ratio imbalance of receptors alpha and beta in lung tissue occurs under the excitement of sympathetic nervous, inducing the increase of the vascular permeability, as a result, inflammatory mediators such as IL-10, IL-13, IFN-γ will cause the increase of alveolar exudation, which further aggravates pulmonary edema and heart failure [
48,
49]. Through the analysis of NPE mechanism, combined with the results of this study, the neurological complications might be the timely predictive factors of poor prognosis, especially consciousness disorders, general weakness, abnormal pupillary light reflex, and some respiratory and circulatory complications are thought to be the warning signal for severe HFMD children, such as white frothy sputum, pink frothy sputum, tachypnea, cyanosis on lips or the whole body; moist rales, tachycardia,arrhythmia, cold limbs, pale complexion, and weakened pulse.
Spatial aggregation of disease means that the risk of disease is significantly higher in some regions than in others. Spatial-Temporal scanning included population variables, that’s is to say, corrected the non-uniform population density in different places, and detected the clustering of cases in both time and space dimensions by moving window method. Through analyzing the severe HFMD cases from 2013 to 2018 in Chongqing, by using space-time scan, found that the clusters were mainly concentrated in Kaixian in 2013, Xiushan in 2014, Fuling and Wanzhou in 2015, and in 2017, mainly concentrated in the Wuxi and Liangping, and it is interesting to note that these areas are mainly concentrated near the Yangtze River basin, which indicates that the prevalence of severe HFMD may be associated with the flow of population, water pollution or other factors related to the river. From the perspective of overall incidence, the results showed that, the incidence of severe HFMD was relatively high in 2013, 2015 and 2017, and significantly decreased in 2014, 2016 and 2018, which may be due to the medical and economic conditions in different regions, showing a cyclical change of decrease and increase, and the prevention and control situation is severe.
As an exploratory analysis, the spatial-temporal scanning method objectively demonstrated the spatial and temporal regularity of the severe HFMD, and well evaluated the abnormal increase of HFMD in different time and space. Through the study, it was found that the incidence of serve HFMD in Chongqing from 2013 to 2018 was not randomly distributed, and there was obvious spatial and temporal aggregation. The spatial-temporal scanning analysis method makes up for the deficiency of the simple epidemiological morbidity comparison and avoids the artificial high incidence of infectious diseases. The judgment of the incidence area is more convincing than the conventional analysis. Meanwhile, combined with the geographic information system, the incidence aggregation area is more intuitive and comprehensive, providing a scientific reference for the development of targeted prevention and control measures in the future.
In conclusion, the correct and timely diagnosis of HFMD, the timely detection of severe cases, as well as timely intervention, close monitoring, and symptomatic treatment are the keys to avoid or slow down the further development of severe cases and reduce the mortality rate of severe HFMD. Besides, health education should be carried out before the high incidence period of HFMD and preventive or protective measures should be taken for children according to the temporal, spatial and socio-demographic epidemiological distribution characteristics of HFMD. Highly sensitive and rapid methods to detect the enterovirus are also needed to be developed [
50,
51]. The results of this study can be the reference of further clinical and public health practice.
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