Why carry out this study?
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Alzheimer’s disease is a major cause of death and disability and constitutes a large economic burden. |
ApoE-ε4 is a strong genetic risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease. |
This review investigated whether this genetic risk could be modified by environmental factors, specifically physical activity or exercise. |
What was learned from the study?
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Several studies have examined interactions and associations between exercise and ApoE-ε4 on mechanisms that contribute to the risk of Alzheimer’s disease. |
Exercise may mitigate the negative effects of ApoE-ε4 on amyloid-beta 42 metabolism, neuroinflammation, neurotrophic factors, cerebral blood vessels and cognitive function, and thereby reduce the risk of Alzheimer’s disease. |
Digital Features
Introduction
Physical Activity in APOE ε4 Carriers
Cognitive Function
Reference | Species | Study population | Number of APOE ε4 carriers | Age, range or mean (SD) | Assessment of exercise | Follow-up period | Outcome measures | Major study outcome |
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Schuit et al. (2001) [37] | Human | 347 male elderly | 79: | 74.6 (4.3) years | Self-reported questionnaire | 3 years | Cognitive testing: MMSE | Maximal 1 h PA per day group showed a greater risk of cognitive decline, which was stronger in APOE ε4 carriers |
8 homozygotes | 3 categories: ≤ 30 min/day, 31–60 min/day and > 60 min/day | |||||||
71 heterozygotes | First two categories were taken together as maximal 1 h PA per day | |||||||
Bernstein et al. (2002) [66] | Human | 1708 adults | 320 | 35–72 years | Self-reported physical activity frequency questionnaire about total and activity-specific energy expenditures | NA | Lipid profile: HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, triglycerides | Enhanced HDL cholesterol in APOE ε4 carriers due to high-intensity exercise. An increase in high-intensity exercise was associated with a decrease in triglycerides only in male APOE ε4 carriers |
Participants were grouped according to age | Categorized according to intensity | |||||||
Podewils et al. (2005) [39] | Human | 3375 cognitively healthy older adults | 813 | 65 years or older | Interview with a modified Minnesota Leisure Time Activity Questionnaire about the frequency and duration of activities over the previous 2 weeks | 5.4 years | Dementia risk | Participants with more than 4 activities in the previous 2 weeks had a lower risk of dementia. This association was absent in carriers of the APOE ε4 allele |
Categorized in the number of activities during 2 weeks | ||||||||
Rovio et al. (2005) [35] | Human | 1251 participants for dementia analyses | Dementia analyses: 438 | At midlife: 39–64 years, mean age 50.6 (6) | Self-reported questionnaire based on frequency | 21 years | Dementia and AD risk late in life | Midlife PA reduced the late-life risk of dementia and AD in especially APOE ε4 carriers |
1239 participants for AD analyses | AD analyses: 433 | At re-examination: 65–79 years, mean age 71.6 (4.1) | Active group: leisure-time PA at least twice a week Sedentary group: leisure-time PA less than twice a week | |||||
Etnier et al. (2007) [25] | Human | 94 cognitively intact older women | 35: 27 heterozygotes, 8 homozygotes | 51–81 years Mean age: 62 (7.39) | Maximal aerobic fitness test (graded exercise test) | NA | Cognitive function: auditory verbal learning test (AVLT), the complex figure test (CFT) and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) | Aerobic fitness was associated with better memory performance in APOE ε4 homozygotes |
Deeny et al. (2008) [32] | Human | Sternberg test: 54 middle-aged adults MEG testing: 23 middle-aged adults | Sternberg test: 16 MEG testing: 9 | 50–70 years | Interview with Yale Physical Activity Survey for Older Adults (records minutes and intensity of weekly PA); behavioural Sternberg testing; MEG Sternberg testing | NA | Behavioural Sternberg testing, MEG Sternberg testing | High PA was related to faster reaction time in executive functions of the working memory in APOE ε4 carriers. Sedentary carriers showed lower right temporal lobe activation |
Nichol et al. (2009) [24] | Mouse | 16 ε3 and 15 ε4 targeted replacement mice | 15 | 10–12 months | Aerobic exercise intervention: 1 min, twice a week for 6 weeks Two groups: exercise (in-cage running wheels) and sedentary group | 6 weeks | Cognitive function: object recognition, radial-arm water maze and place recognition testing; BDNF levels | APOE ε4 mice engaged in aerobic exercise improved cognition and hippocampal function Increased hippocampal BDNF levels due to exercise in both groups |
Chang et al. (2010) [36] | Human | 4761 non-demented and 184 demented participants | 583 | Midlife examination: mean age 51 Late-life examination: mean age 76 | Interview 3 groups: no midlife PA, ≤ 5 h PA and ≥ 5 h PA | 26 years | Cognitive tests: digit symbol substitution test, figure comparison, modified Stroop test, California Verbal Learning Test, immediate and delayed recall, digits backwards, short CANTAB Spatial Working Memory Test, Stroop test part III | Faster speed of processing and better memory and executive functions in both midlife PA groups. Midlife PA was associated with reduced risk for dementia in APOE ε4 non-carriers |
Sanders et al. (2010) [27] | Human | 69 patients with dementia | 30: 3 homozygotes, 27 heterozygotes | 82.3 (7) years | Exercise intervention: walking and lower limb strength training program with low- and high-intensity training, each 6 weeks: three times/week for 12 weeks | 36 weeks | Physical function; cognitive function: neuropsychological tests and MMSE | No effect of exercise on physical or cognitive function in APOE ε4 carriers |
Seip et al. (2011) [67] | Human | 166 participants | 54 | 18–70 years | Exercise intervention: aerobic training of moderate to vigorous intensity for 6 months. 40 min per training and 4 days/week | 6 months | Lipid profile: total glycerides, HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, total cholesterol | Exercise did not modify HDL or LDL cholesterol in APOE ε4 carriers |
Smith et al. (2011) [28] | Human | 68 cognitively intact older adults | 34: 2 homozygotes, 32 heterozygotes | 65–85 years | Self-reported questionnaire Stanford Brief Activity Survey based on frequency and intensity Low-PA group: two or fewer low-intensity physical activities per week High-PA group: moderate to heavy physical activities at least 3 times a week | NA | Neuropsychological testing: MMSE, Mattis Dementia Rating Scale 2 (DRS-2), RAVLT, Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS), Lawton Activities of Daily Living (ADLs); name discrimination task; semantic memory activation | More memory-related brain activation in highly active old adults carrying the APOE ε4 allele |
Woodard et al. (2012) [30] | Human | 78 healthy, cognitively intact older adults | 26: 1 homozygote, 25 heterozygotes | 65–88 years Mean age: 73.1 (4.9) | Stanford Brief Activity Survey Low-PA group: two or fewer low-intensity physical activities per week High-PA group: moderate to heavy physical activities at least 3 times a week | 18 months | Neuropsychological testing: MMSE, DRS-2, RAVLT Trials 1–5, RAVLT Delayed Recall; hippocampal volume | High PA was associated with reduced probability of cognitive decline in APOE ε4 carriers |
Deeny et al. (2012) [33] | Human | 18 healthy female old adults | 9 | 56.53 (7.36) years | Maximal fitness test; the fitness level was based on the VO2max | NA | Cognitive tests: MMSE, Beck Depression Inventory, California Verbal Learning Test, Trail Making Test, category and verbal fluency; FDG-PET scan, Sternberg testing | Highly active ε4 carriers showed greater glucose uptake in the temporal lobe and low fit carriers in the frontal and parietal lobes |
Head et al. (2012) [47] | Human | 201 cognitively intact adults: 163 for PiB-PET analysis 165 for cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) sample analysis | PiB-PET sample: 52 CSF sample: 56 | 45–88 years | Questionnaire administered by telephone Low-exercise and high-exercise engagement groups (high group: at or above 30 min of moderate exercise 5 days/week) | NA | CSF Aβ42 samples and in vivo amyloid imaging via PET with [11C]PiB | Sedentary APOE ε4 carriers showed more amyloid deposition The association of exercise with CSF Aβ42 did not differ between carriers and non-carriers |
Brown et al. (2013) [49] | Human | 546 cognitively intact older adults | 148 | 60–95 years Mean age 69.6 (6.8) | International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) measured habitual physical activity Categorized into tertiles from low to high activity | Serum insulin, glucose, cholesterol and plasma Aβ measurements; cerebral amyloid imaging by [11C]PiB-PET | High PA was associated with increased HDL, lower insulin, triglycerides and Aβ1–42/1–40 ratio High PA reduced plasma Aβ1–42/1–40 ratio in non-carriers Low PA was associated with higher brain amyloid burden in APOE ε4 carriers | |
Braskie et al. (2014) [72] | Human | 43 cognitively intact older adults and 39 AD patients | 23: 2 homozygotes, 21 heterozygotes | Cognitively intact older adults: 79.3 (4.8) AD patients: 81.9 (5.1) | Modified Minnesota Leisure Time Physical Activity Questionnaire about frequency and duration of activities over the previous 2 weeks | 9 years | Regional brain volumes, inflammatory marker TNFα serum levels | High physical activity and low serum levels of TNFα showed independently greater total brain volume |
Luck et al. (2014) [38] | Human | 2492 general practice patients without dementia | 514 | 75 and older Mean age 81.1 (3.5) | Interview Active group: participating in an activity every day or several times a week | 4.5 years (follow-up every 1.5 years) | Cognitive testing: MMSE | Low fit APOE ε4 carriers had a higher risk for dementia and AD and a shorter survival time without clinical symptoms |
Smith et al. (2014) [31] | Human | 97 healthy, cognitively intact older adults | 22: 2 homozygotes, 20 heterozygotes | 65–89 years | Self-reported questionnaire based on frequency and intensity Stanford Brief Activity Survey Low-PA group: two or fewer low-intensity physical activities per week High PA group: moderate to heavy physical activities at least 3 times a week | 18 months | Neurobehavioural testing: MMSE, Mattis Dementia Rating Scale 2 (DRS-2), Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS), Lawton Activities of Daily Living (ADL); hippocampal volume | A decrease of 3% in hippocampal volume in the high-risk/low-PA group |
Tan et al. (2016) [40] | Human | 3714 cognitively intact older adults | 796 | 60 years or older Mean age 70 (7) | Interview about the number of activities in a day. PA index was calculated and categorized into 5 quartiles | 10 years | Risk of incident all-cause dementia and AD, total cerebral brain volume and hippocampal volume | Low-PA group showed a higher risk of incident dementia; this effect was limited to non-carriers Higher PA index was related to greater hippocampal volume |
Allard et al. (2017) [81] | Human | 22 elderly African Americans with mild cognitive impairment | 9: 2 homozygotes, 7 heterozygotes | 55–89 years Mean age 72.0 (7.2) | Exercise intervention: stretch and aerobic exercise groups. Supervised training 3 days a week After 4–6 weeks the aerobic group walked 45–60 min during the weekend | 6 months | Serum BDNF levels | No differences in BDNF levels between stretch and aerobic exercise groups, but a smaller change in APOE ε4 carriers BDNF levels were upregulated due to aerobic exercise only in APOE ε4 non-carriers |
Fenesi et al. (2017) [41] | Human | 1646 older adults | 376 | 65 years or older Mean age 76.4 (6.8) | Interview about the type and frequency of PA PA was categorized as exercisers and non-exercisers | 5 years | Dementia risk (odds ratio of developing dementia) | PA was effective in reducing the risk of dementia in non-carriers |
Corlier et al. (2018) [74] | Human | 335 cognitively intact older adults | 57: 4 homozygotes, 53 heterozygotes | 65 years and older Mean age 77.3 (3.4) | Self-reported questionnaire about PA in the previous 2 weeks | 9 years | Structural MRI analysis: cortical thickness of cortical regions and hippocampal volume; peripheral inflammation by serum CRP levels | High CRP levels were associated with thinner cortex PA was positively correlated with hippocampal volume, but did not have effect on CRP levels Lower CRP levels and thinner cortex were observed in APOE ε4 carriers |
Lee et al. (2018) [64] | Human | 28 ischemic stroke patients divided into APOE ε3 and ε4 groups | 15 | APOE ε3: 56.8 (10.65) | Exercise intervention: 5 days a week for 6 months. 3 days aerobic exercise of 45 min and 2 days resistance training | 6 months | Cognition: MMSE; lipid profile: HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, total cholesterol, triglycerides | Exercise increased HDL cholesterol in both groups A larger decrease in LDL cholesterol, total cholesterol and triglycerides due to exercise in APOE ε4 carriers |
Jensen et al. (2019) [23] | Human | 199 patients with mild AD | 144: 54 homozygotes 90 heterozygotes | 50–90 years | Supervised aerobic exercise intervention: 1 h, three times a week for 16 weeks | 16 weeks | Cognition: symbol digit modalities test (SDMT), neuropsychiatric symptoms: NPI and physical performance | APOE ε4 carriers engaged in exercise improved cognitive, neuropsychiatric and physical performance |
Piccarducci et al. (2019) [52] | Human | 42 healthy participants | 16 | 20–70 years Mean age 39.5 | Habits questionnaire Non-active group: < 150 min per week of physical activity | NA | Oxidative status and membrane composition of erythrocytes, Aβ levels | Aβ accumulation in erythrocytes decreases with physical activity in both APOE ε4 carriers and non-carriers, but carriers had higher levels of Aβ |
Jeon et al. (2020) [48] | Human | 287 non-demented older adults | 66 | 55–90 years Mean age 71.91 (6.64) | Lifetime Total Physical Activity questionnaire via an interview about frequency and intensity of leisure activities | NA | Cerebral Aβ accumulation by [11C]PiB-PET, AD-signature cerebral glucose metabolism by [18F]FDG-PET hippocampal volume | Midlife PA moderated the effect of Aβ accumulation in APOE4 on cerebral glucose metabolism. At low PA, high Aβ accumulation was associated with low cerebral glucose metabolism |
Stringa et al. (2020) [34] | Human | 7176 older adults over three cohorts | 1863 | 55 years and older | Self-reported questionnaires(LAPAQ, interview, Zutphen Physical Activity questionnaire) | 9 years | Cognitive functioning: MMSE | PA was not associated with cognitive decline in APOE ε4 carriers |
3 categories: low, moderate and high PA |