Background
Materials and methods
Study area, sampling procedure and participants
District | Village | Geographical location | Altitude (m.a.s.l)a | Mean annual rainfall (mm)b | Rainfall season | Soil types | Temperature (°C)c | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Latitude | Longitude | Maxd | Mine | ||||||
Chimanimani | NWf | − 19.73976 | 32.43407 | 541 | 415 | December–March | Sandy loamy | 40 | 15 |
Chimanimani | GDg | − 19.89719 | 32.3819 | 491 | 450 | Clay loamy | 39 | 18 | |
Chimanimani | THh | − 19.93702 | 32.37236 | 492 | 430 | Clay | 40 | 16 | |
Chipinge | MDI | − 19.95341 | 32.35402 | 499 | 120 | Sandy loam | 38 | 15 |
Village | Household interviews | Focus group discussions | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Males | Females | Total | Males | Females | No. of FGDa conducted | |
Tonhorai | 19 (37.3%) | 32 (62.7%) | 51 | 10 | 12 | 2 |
Maunganidze | 22 (44.9%) | 27 (55.1%) | 49 | 10 | 10 | 2 |
Gudyanga | 17 (34.7%) | 32 (65.3%) | 49 | 10 | 12 | 2 |
Nenhowe | 17 (63%) | 10 (37%) | 27 | 10 | 11 | 2 |
Total | 75 (42.6%) | 101 (57.4%) | 176 | 40 | 45 | 8 |
Data collection and analysis
Results
Demographics and household characteristics of respondents
District | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age interval (years) | Chimanimani villages | Chipinge village | ||||
Nenhowe | Gudyanga | Tonhorai | Maunganidze | Overall | P value | |
< 30 | 1% (2) | 3% (5) | 3% (5) | 1% (2) | 8% (14) | 0.294 |
31–40 | 2% (4) | 10% (17) | 5% (8) | 3% (6) | 20% (35) | 0.001* |
41–50 | 5% (8) | 7% (13) | 7% (12) | 9% (16) | 28% (49) | 0.104 |
51–60 | 3% (6) | 5% (9) | 11% (19) | 6% (10) | 25% (44) | 0.001* |
61–70 | 2% (3) | 2% (3) | 3% (5) | 6% (10) | 12% (21) | 0.098 |
> 70 | 2% (4) | 1% (2) | 1% (2) | 3% (5) | 7% (13) | 0.429 |
Navy bean production, farming systems and important crops grown
Villages | |||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gudyanga (%) | Maunganidze (%) | Nenhowe (%) | Tonhorai (%) | Overall Mean | |||||||||||||
Sex | |||||||||||||||||
Criterion | Crop | Ma | Fb | Mean | M | F | Mean | M | F | Mean | M | F | Mean | M | F | Mean | P value |
Cultivation area | Maize | 48.81 | 1001 | 74.41 | 89.61 | 65.21 | 77.41 | 1001 | 741 | 871 | 70.41 | 1001 | 85.21 | 77.21 | 84.81 | 811 | 0.039* |
Beans | 16.43 | 57.22 | 36.82 | 32.82 | 65.21 | 492 | 44.42 | 29.62 | 372 | 39.22 | 70.42 | 54.82 | 33.22 | 55.62 | 44.42 | 0.044* | |
Wheat | 16.43 | 16.44 | 16.44 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 29.63 | 0 | 14.84 | 84 | 0 | 46 | 13.56 | 4.17 | 8.86 | 0.052 | |
Onions | 24.42 | 8.45 | 16.44 | 85 | 40.83 | 24.44 | 14.85 | 0 | 7.45 | 84 | 23.64 | 15.84 | 13.85 | 18.24 | 164 | 0.050* | |
Tomatoes | 16.43 | 48.83 | 32.63 | 32.82 | 24.444 | 28.63 | 14.85 | 0 | 7.46 | 84 | 39.23 | 23.63 | 183 | 28.13 | 23.13 | 0.047* | |
Sorghum | 0 | 5.67 | 2.87 | 16.44 | 85 | 12.25 | 29.63 | 29.62 | 29.63 | 15.63 | 85 | 11.85 | 15.44 | 12.85 | 14.15 | 0.052 | |
Lablab | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 85 | 46 | 0 | 14.84 | 7.46 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 5.76 | 2.98 | 0.052 | |
Velvet beans | 16.43 | 86 | 12.26 | 0 | 85 | 46 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4.17 | 48 | 4.17 | 0.052 | |
Cash Income | Maize | 0 | 40.84 | 20.44 | 24.43 | 65.21 | 44.82 | 44.42 | 59.21 | 51.82 | 31.22 | 70.41 | 50.82 | 252 | 58.92 | 42.02 | 0.043* |
Beans | 40.81 | 89.61 | 65.21 | 40.81 | 57.22 | 491 | 1001 | 29.62 | 64.81 | 54.81 | 62.82 | 58.81 | 59.11 | 59.81 | 59.51 | 0.044* | |
Wheat | 16.44 | 86 | 12.26 | 24.43 | 32.83 | 28.63 | 14.85 | 14.83 | 14.84 | 85 | 15.66 | 11.85 | 15.96 | 17.85 | 16.95 | 0.051 | |
Onions | 16.44 | 48.83 | 32.63 | 24.43 | 0 | 12.27 | 29.63 | 14.83 | 22.23 | 85 | 87 | 87 | 19.64 | 17.96 | 18.84 | 0.049* | |
Tomatoes | 32.82 | 57.22 | 452 | 32.82 | 24.44 | 28.63 | 0 | 14.83 | 7.46 | 31.22 | 39.23 | 35.23 | 24.23 | 33.93 | 29.13 | 0.047* | |
Lablab | 32.82 | 0 | 16.45 | 87 | 87 | 88 | 29.63 | 0 | 14.85 | 0 | 23.65 | 11.85 | 17.65 | 7.97 | 12.86 | 0.050 | |
Velvet beans | 0 | 0 | 0 | 16.46 | 16.45 | 16.45 | 14.85 | 0 | 7.46 | 15.64 | 0 | 7.88 | 11.77 | 4.18 | 7.98 | 0.052 | |
Okra | 0 | 16.45 | 8.27 | 87 | 16.45 | 12.26 | 0 | 14.83 | 7.46 | 0 | 31.24 | 15.64 | 28 | 19.74 | 10.97 | 0.050* | |
Food security | Maize | 1001 | 1001 | 1001 | 1001 | 1001 | 1001 | 1001 | 1001 | 1001 | 1001 | 1001 | 1001 | 1001 | 1001 | 1001 | NS |
Beans | 8.02 | 242 | 162 | 8.03 | 16.42 | 12.24 | 14.82 | 29.62 | 22.22 | 8.03 | 23.63 | 15.83 | 11.63 | 23.42 | 17.52 | 0.052 | |
Sorghum | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 16.42 | 16.42 | 16.42 | 14.82 | 14.83 | 14.83 | 15.62 | 31.22 | 23.42 | 11.72 | 15.63 | 13.73 | 0.051 | |
Wheat | 0.0 | 8.03 | 8.03 | 16.42 | 16.42 | 16.42 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 15.62 | 84 | 11.84 | 83 | 8.14 | 8.14 | 0.052 |
Crops based on cultivation area
Crops based on cash income
Crops based on food security
Land size and navy bean production yield
Average land size | Farming system (%) | Estimated yield (t ha-1) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Average land size (ha) per household | Average land size (ha) allocated to navy bean (ha) per household | SCa | ICb | MCc | MOCd | ||
Village | |||||||
Tonhorai | 0.77 | 0.27 | 100 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2.45bc |
Gudyanga | 0.69 | 0.23 | 100 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2.76d |
Nenhowe | 0.79 | 0.32 | 100 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2.19a |
Maunganidze | 0.76 | 0.26 | 100 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2.42b |
Mean | 0.75 | 0.27 | 100 | 2.45 | |||
LSDe | 0.11 | 0.05 | NS | - | - | - | 0.26 |
F prf | 0.076NS | 0.092NS | NS | - | - | - | 0.035* |
Navy bean production constraints
Villages | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sex | Constraint | Gudyanga (%) rank | Maunganidze (%) rank | Nenhowe (%) rank | Tonhorai (%) rank | Mean (%) | Overall rank | P value | ||||
Females | Heat stress | 60 | 2 | 64 | 2 | 48 | 2 | 60 | 2 | 58 | 2 | 0.046* |
Drought stress | 84 | 1 | 80 | 1 | 100 | 1 | 80 | 1 | 86 | 1 | 0.025* | |
Susceptibility to pod shattering | 32 | 5 | 32 | 4 | 28 | 5 | 36 | 4 | 32 | 4 | 0.208 | |
Poor soil fertility | 36 | 4 | 24 | 6 | 40 | 3 | 28 | 7 | 32 | 4 | 0.042* | |
Diseases | 24 | 7 | 24 | 6 | 28 | 5 | 28 | 7 | 26 | 8 | 0.417 | |
Insect pests | 28 | 6 | 32 | 4 | 28 | 5 | 32 | 5 | 30 | 6 | 0.417 | |
Seed availability | 24 | 7 | 24 | 6 | 28 | 5 | 32 | 5 | 27 | 7 | 0.152 | |
Low-yielding cultivars | 20 | 10 | 20 | 10 | 20 | 10 | 20 | 9 | 20 | 10 | 0.591 | |
Power outages | 48 | 3 | 52 | 3 | 44 | 4 | 40 | 3 | 46 | 3 | 0.083 | |
Shortage of labour | 20 | 10 | 20 | 10 | 20 | 10 | 16 | 11 | 19 | 11 | 0.556 | |
Lack of access to transport | 24 | 7 | 24 | 6 | 24 | 9 | 20 | 9 | 23 | 9 | 0.556 | |
Males | Heat stress | 48 | 3 | 44 | 2 | 60 | 1 | 68 | 1 | 55 | 2 | 0.018* |
Drought stress | 76 | 1 | 84 | 1 | 68 | 2 | 64 | 2 | 73 | 1 | 0.028* | |
Susceptibility to pod shattering | 44 | 4 | 44 | 2 | 36 | 4 | 44 | 4 | 42 | 4 | 0.139 | |
Poor soil fertility | 28 | 5 | 40 | 5 | 36 | 4 | 28 | 7 | 33 | 6 | 0.062 | |
Diseases | 24 | 7 | 24 | 7 | 28 | 6 | 32 | 6 | 27 | 9 | 0.152 | |
Insect pests | 28 | 5 | 28 | 6 | 28 | 6 | 36 | 5 | 30 | 8 | 0.139 | |
Seed availability | 24 | 7 | 24 | 7 | 24 | 8 | 20 | 8 | 23 | 10 | 0.556 | |
Low-yielding cultivars | 20 | 10 | 20 | 10 | 20 | 9 | 16 | 10 | 19 | 11 | 0.556 | |
Power outages | 60 | 2 | 44 | 2 | 14 | 3 | 14 | 3 | 54 | 3 | 0.046* | |
Shortage of labour | 80 | 10 | 20 | 10 | 16 | 11 | 16 | 10 | 33 | 6 | 0.417 | |
Lack of access to transport | 96 | 7 | 24 | 7 | 20 | 9 | 20 | 8 | 40 | 5 | 0.417 |
Management strategies for moisture and heat stress
Village | Average (%) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Stress | Strategy | Gudyanga (%) | Maunganidze (%) | Nenhowe (%) | Tonhorai (%) | P value | |
Moisture | Soil mulching | 29 (2) | 16 (2) | 6 (7) | 14 (2) | 18 (1) | 0.040* |
Reducing acreage | 11 (3) | 5 (6) | 17 (3) | 14 (2) | 11 (3) | 0.051 | |
Use of ridges | 9 (5) | 14 (3) | 22 (2) | 9 (5) | 12 (2) | 0.049* | |
Cultivating to retain more moisture in soil | 6 (5) | 14 (3) | 11 (4) | 14 (2) | 11 (3) | 0.053 | |
Adjusting planting dates | 0 (7) | 8 (5) | 0 (7) | 3 (6) | 3 (6) | 0.053 | |
No control strategy | 40 (1) | 38 (1) | 33 (1) | 43 (1) | 39 (NC)a | 0.052 | |
Watering of plants at night | 6 (6) | 5 (6) | 11 (4) | 3 (6) | 6 (5) | 0.053 | |
Heat | Adjusting planting dates | 18 (4) | 22 (2) | 56 (1) | 38 (1) | 29 (2) | 0.006* |
Irrigating at night | 24 (2) | 49 (1) | 25 (2) | 21 (3) | 32 (1) | 0.027* | |
No control strategy | 24 (2) | 16 (3) | 6 (4) | 25 (2) | 19 (NC) | 0.042* | |
Mulching | 33 (1) | 14 (4) | 13 (3) | 17 (4) | 20 (3) | 0.041* |
Navy bean marketing constraints
Village | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sex | Constraint | Gudyanga (%) | Maunganidze (%) | Nenhowe (%) | Tonhorai (%) | Mean (%) | Rank | P value |
Male | Delayed payment by contractor | 72 | 60 | 24 | 68 | 56 | 3 | 0.033* |
Breach of contract by contractor | 0 | 0 | 0 | 64 | 16 | 7 | 0.022* | |
Low grain producer price | 36 | 28 | 96 | 44 | 51 | 4 | 0.019* | |
Lack of diversity in terms of buyers/off-takers | 48 | 92 | 84 | 64 | 72 | 2 | 0.081 | |
None | 0 | 0 | 0 | 20 | 5 | NCa | 0.107 | |
Expensive packaging material | 48 | 20 | 0 | 0 | 17 | 7 | 0.021* | |
Non-payment for produce in hard currency | 100 | 52 | 100 | 96 | 87 | 1 | 0.062 | |
Inflation eroding the value of the produce | 48 | 56 | 48 | 44 | 49 | 5 | 0.421 | |
Lack of transport to ferry produce | 24 | 72 | 12 | 0 | 27 | 6 | 0.033* | |
Non-transparent grain grading | 24 | 20 | 24 | 0 | 17 | 7 | 0.081 | |
Female | Delayed payment by contractor | 72 | 64 | 20 | 56 | 53 | 3 | 0.054 |
Breach of contract by contractor | 24 | 28 | 0 | 44 | 24 | 6 | 0.065 | |
Low grain producer price | 64 | 100 | 60 | 36 | 65 | 2 | 0.050* | |
Lack of diversity in terms of buyers/off-takers | 64 | 28 | 40 | 76 | 52 | 4 | 0.056 | |
None | 0 | 0 | 30 | 24 | 13.5 | NC | 0.003* | |
Expensive packaging material | 28 | 0 | 40 | 0 | 17 | 7 | 0.028* | |
Non-payment for produce in hard currency | 100 | 40 | 100 | 100 | 85 | 1 | 0.148 | |
Inflation eroding the value of the produce | 0 | 44 | 80 | 24 | 37 | 5 | 0.009* | |
Lack of transport to ferry produce | 24 | 28 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 9 | 0.157 | |
Non-transparent grain grading | 0 | 48 | 0 | 12 | 15 | 8 | 0.025* |
Farmer preferred traits for improvement during navy bean breeding
Village | |||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gudyanga (%) | Maunganidze (%) | Nenhowe (%) | Tonhorai (%) | ||||||||||||
Cultivar characteristic | Ma | Fb | Mnc | M | F | Mn | M | F | Mn | M | F | Mn | Mean (%) | Overall rank | P value |
Heat stress tolerance | 76 (1) | 68 (6) | 72 (2) | 68 (8) | 67 (9) | 68 (9) | 71 (1) | 70 (1) | 71 (1) | 75 (1) | 75 (2) | 75 (2) | 72 | 1 | 0.125 |
Drought stress tolerance | 70 (3) | 73 (1) | 72 (2) | 71 (1) | 75 (1) | 73 (1) | 71 (1) | 70 (1) | 71 (1) | 74 (3) | 69 (8) | 72 (3) | 72 | 1 | 0.083 |
Disease tolerance | 70 (3) | 72 (3) | 71 (4) | 71 (1) | 75 (1) | 73 (1) | 71 (1) | 70 (1) | 71 (1) | 72 (4) | 72 (4) | 72 (3) | 72 | 1 | 0.059 |
Insect pest tolerance | 68 (5) | 68 (6) | 68 (6) | 69 (6) | 66 (10) | 68 (9) | 71 (1) | 70 (1) | 71 (1) | 75 (1) | 76 (1) | 76 (1) | 71 | 4 | 0.985 |
Canning quality | 30 (16) | 27 (17) | 29 (16) | 31 (16) | 30 (16) | 31 (16) | 33 (16) | 20 (17) | 27 (17) | 21 (16) | 11 (17) | 16 (17) | 26 | 17 | 0.011* |
Short cooking time | 68 (5) | 67 (8) | 68 (6) | 68 (8) | 63 (11) | 66 (11) | 69 (7) | 66 (7) | 68 (7) | 62 (11) | 73 (3) | 68 (10) | 68 | 8 | 0.116 |
Grain yield | 68 (5) | 72 (3) | 70 (5) | 71 (1) | 75 (1) | 73 (1) | 71 (1) | 66 (7) | 69 (6) | 72 (4) | 68 (9) | 70 (5) | 71 | 4 | 0.469 |
Maturity period | 72 (2) | 73 (1) | 73 (1) | 71 (1) | 75 (1) | 73 (1) | 64 (11) | 70 (1) | 67 (9) | 68 (7) | 71 (6) | 70 (5) | 71 | 4 | 0.221 |
Nutritional value iron, zinc | 22 (17) | 34 (16) | 28 (17) | 29 (17) | 19 (17) | 24 (17) | 21 (17) | 59 (11) | 40 (16) | 21 (16) | 19 (16) | 20 (16) | 28 | 16 | 0.012* |
Growth habit | 44 (15) | 40 (15) | 42 (15) | 39 (15) | 35 (15) | 37 (15) | 44 (15) | 43 (13) | 44 (15) | 35 (15) | 46 (15) | 41 (15) | 41 | 15 | 0.019* |
Plant height | 54 (12) | 49 (12) | 52 (12) | 53 (12) | 50 (12) | 52 (12) | 50 (12) | 43 (13) | 47 (12) | 58 (12) | 52 (12) | 55 (12) | 52 | 12 | 0.560 |
Resistance to pod shattering | 68 (5) | 65 (10) | 67 (8) | 68 (8) | 71 (7) | 70 (6) | 67 (10) | 63 (10) | 65 (10) | 66 (9) | 72 (4) | 69 (8) | 68 | 8 | 0.200 |
Pod size | 68 (5) | 64 (11) | 66 (9) | 69 (6) | 69 (8) | 69 (8) | 69 (7) | 70 (1) | 70 (5) | 68 (7) | 71 (6) | 70 (5) | 69 | 7 | 0.854 |
Grain size | 62 (10) | 69 (5) | 66 (9) | 71 (1) | 75 (1) | 73 (1) | 69 (7) | 66 (7) | 68 (7) | 66 (9) | 65 (11) | 66 (11) | 68 | 8 | 0.714 |
Grain taste | 46 (13) | 46 (14) | 46 (14) | 44 (13) | 42 (13) | 43 (13) | 46 (13) | 47 (13) | 47 (12) | 48 (14) | 47 (13) | 48 (14) | 46 | 14 | 0.025* |
Storability | 62 (10) | 67 (8) | 65 (11) | 65 (11) | 75 (1) | 70 (6) | 71 (1) | 59 (11) | 65 (10) | 70 (6) | 68 (9) | 69 (8) | 67 | 11 | 0.504 |
Ease of shelling | 46 (13) | 47 (13) | 47 (13) | 44 (13) | 41 (14) | 43 (13) | 46 (13) | 47 (13) | 47 (12) | 50 (13) | 47 (13) | 49 (13) | 47 | 13 | 0.521 |
Sources of seed supply and cultivar preferences by farmers
Village | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gender | Cultivar | Gudyanga | Maunganidze | Nenhowe | Tonhorai | Total | OveraIl rank | P value | ||||
Females | Zimbabwe White Bean | 54% | (1) | 58% | (1) | 15% | (1) | 54% | (1) | 49% | 1 | 0.032* |
Teabus | 8% | (2) | 3% | (2) | 10% | (2) | 15% | (2) | 9% | 2 | 0.003* | |
Caledon | 3% | (3) | 0% | (3) | 0% | (3) | 0% | (3) | 1% | 3 | 0.638 | |
Males | Zimbabwe White Bean | 31% | (1) | 32% | (1) | 55% | (1) | 28% | (1) | 34% | 1 | 0.015* |
Teabus | 3% | (2) | 6% | (2) | 15% | (2) | 3% | (2) | 5% | 2 | 0.021* | |
Caledon | 3% | (3) | 0% | (3) | 5% | (3) | 0% | (3) | 1% | 3 | 0.042* |