Malaria is an entirely preventable and treatable disease. Its represents one of the most critical public-health challenges for Africa [1, 2]. In the absence of an effective vaccine, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends prompt access to diagnosis, artemisinin-based combination therapy, long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLIN), indoor residual spraying of insecticide (IRS) and intermittent preventive treatment during pregnancy. Since 2000, there has been a tremendous increase in the financial support for malaria control. Therefore, malaria control programs have implemented heavily malaria vectors control tools such as the massive distribution of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLIN) and indoor residual spraying of insecticide (IRS). The percentage of households owning at least one long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLIN) in sub-Saharan Africa increased from 3% in 2000 to 79% in 2015 making it the most widely deployed vector control tool in sub-Saharan Africa [1, 2]. Regarding IRS, the percentage of people protected by this intervention in the African Region increased from less than 5% in 2005 to 11% in 2010 but declined since 2011. Scaling up of malaria vector control has led to a considerable reduction in malaria incidence and mortality [1, 2]. However, despite this major decrease of the malaria burden, the disease is still of major public health concern, with an estimated 212 million cases and 429,000 deaths in 2015 [2]. Household surveys indicate that 96% of persons with access to an LLIN use it [1]. Nevertheless, this number might overestimate the real LLINs use [3]. For example in Benin, the real use of LLINs was showed to be less than 50%, even in the framework of a controlled trial [4]. Among reasons of low LLIN use is the discomfort of having to sleep under an LLIN when nocturnal temperature are high [5]. Net fabric may play a role in the comfort when using it as well as wash resistance and these factors could influence net use rates. To date, all LLINs fully recommended by the World Health Organization Pesticide Scheme (WHOPES) are made of polyester or polyethylene [6]. Polyester nets are usually smooth and soft to the touch with good user acceptance, but generally lack high mechanical strength, rarely maintaining their physical integrity beyond 2–3 years. Polyethylene nets are generally more resistant than polyester ones. However, they often need heat treatments or extra time for insecticide regeneration and are usually rough to the touch, contributing to lower acceptance [6].
Pyrethroid LLINs are the main LLINs recommended by the WHOPES because of their strong efficacy, their fast acting effect at low dose, and their low toxicity for mammals [7]. In countries where LLINs were implemented at large scale, malaria vectors have developed resistance to pyrethroids [8]. However until now, there is no evidence that pyrethroid resistance reduced the effectiveness of LLINs for controlling malaria at an operational level. Moreover, since the advent of pyrethroids in the 1970s, very few or no new major class of active ingredients (AI) has appeared in the pipeline of public-health products. Suppliers estimate that developing a new AI today takes at least 10 years and its cost might reach $300 million [9]. Then, the development of new LLINs is therefore based on existing pyrethroids used alone or in combination with synergist or Insect Growth Regulator to impregnate polyethylene, polyester or alternative materials [10, 11].
The study area is located in Malanville, a District of northern Benin, situated in a Sudanian savannah area, near rice fields. This field station belongs to the Anopheles Biology and Control (ABC) Network [10]. The area is characterized by a long dry season lasting from December to June. An irrigation system from the Niger River allows rice cultivation during the dry season. Anopheles gambiae s.l. is the main malaria vector with 95.7% Anopheles coluzzii, and 3.5% Anopheles arabiensis [12, 13]. In this area, An. gambiae s.l was showed previously to be susceptible to most pyrethroids [12, 14]. However, a significant increase of pyrethroid resistance (< 50% mortality at 0.05% deltamethrin) due to the occurrence of the kdr mutation (frequency of 1014F allele = 47%) and enhanced oxidase activity was observed at the time of the present evaluation [15].
Design of the huts
Experimental stations are composed of several identical experimental huts designed to resemble local housing. The walls are made with concrete bricks, the ceiling with a polyethylene sheeting and the roof with iron. The huts are surrounded by water-filled channel in order to avoid the entry of ants. (Fig. 1). Each experimental hut have four windows made with metal pieces which are placed with an angle creating a 1 cm gap so as to allow mosquitoes to entry easily and to limit their exit from the hut. At the back of each experimental hut a veranda trap 1.5 m high, 1.5 m wide and 2 m long, is built. This veranda is made with a polyethylene sheeting. During the night, mosquitoes can move, as well as, from the hut to the veranda and from the veranda to the hut (Fig. 1) [16].
Fig. 1
Design of the experimental huts commonly used in West Africa
This study had lasted for 12 weeks corresponding to two complete Latin squares. Each week, a rotation of the treatment arms was done among the huts according to a Latin square scheme. Per treatment, six nets were used. Each of the six nets was used only one night during a week a (the evaluation was run 6 days per week). All huts were carefully cleaned and ventilated at the end of each week in order to remove eventual pesticides residues. Considering the six treatment arms, 6 weeks were needed to ensure a complete rotation of treatment arms and sleepers among huts. To obtain sufficient numbers of mosquitoes for statistical analysis, two Latin square were needed. According to the WHOPES procedures, all nets to be tested were deliberately holed (six holes on each net, two holes in each of the long sides and one hole in each of the others sides. Each hole measures 4 cm × 4 cm [17].
Volunteer participants and mosquito collections
The participants to the study were adult volunteers recruited among the inhabitants of the villages close to the experimental station. The selection was done after having received the approval of the local authorities. The volunteer participants (sleepers) were informed on the objectives of the study and they have signed an informed consent (written in English and French). Before the beginning of the experimental hut trial, each sleeper received a medical certificate by the physician of the Malanville health centre to authorize the work. The sleepers entered the huts at 8:00 PM and remained inside until the morning at 6:00 AM. In the morning, volunteer participants collected mosquitoes in the huts and on the veranda using mouth aspirators. Females mosquitoes collected alive, dead, fed or unfed in the hut and on the veranda were counted and kept separately. Alive female mosquitoes were fed with sugar solution for 24 h for assessing mortality after 24 h (delayed mortality).
The entomologic indicators measured in the experimental huts were:
the reduction in female mosquitoes hut entry relative to the control (deterrence);
the proportion of female mosquitoes collected on the veranda (exophily);
the reduction in female mosquitoes blood feeding relative to the control hut (blood feeding inhibition);
the proportion of female mosquitoes found dead in the morning and after 24 h (immediate mortality and delayed mortality);
The personal protection (pp) effect of a treated net and their killing effect (ke) were also estimated as follows:
$$ pp\left(\%\right)=100\times \left( bu- bt\right)/ bu $$
where bu is the total number of blood-fed female mosquitoes in the negative control hut and bt is the total number of blood-fed female mosquitoes in the huts with insecticide treated nets.
$$ ke\left(\%\right)=100\times \left( kt- ku\right)/ tu $$
where kt is the total number of female mosquitoes killed in the huts with insecticide treated nets, ku is the total number of female mosquitoes killed in the negative control hut and tu is the total number of female mosquitoes collected from the negative control hut.
Bioassays
Six randomly selected nets to be used in the huts (one per treatment arm: 1 untreated net, 3 LifeNets and 2 CTNs) were bio-assayed before any washing, after washings and after field experiments. Standard WHO cone tests were done [19]. Five cones were placed on each net on the 5 sides. Under each cone, 5 females of An. gambiae susceptible reference strain were introduced for 3 min. Bioassays were replicated two times per side (10 females mosquitoes per cone) to ensure that 50 mosquitoes in overall were tested per net. Knock Down (KD) was checked after 60 min and the mortality 24 h after exposition was recorded. The cone test was done after each wash for the CTN washed to just before exhaustion and until mortality and KD decreased under 80% et 95% respectively. Then washes were stopped.
Side effects perceived by the sleepers
After sleeping in each treatment arm, the sleepers were questioned in order to record beneficial and adverse effects they perceived during the evaluation in each treatment.
Data analysis
The non parametric Kruskal-Wallis test was used for analysis of entry rates. Proportional data (exophily, blood feeding, mortality) were analyzed using logistic regression. Each treatment was successively used as the reference class for multiple comparisons. One analysis has been run on the An. gambiae s.l. collected in the huts and another analysis has been run on all mosquitoes collected. Data of mortality and KD recorded with the bioassays were compared between treatment arms using a χ2 test. Analysis were done using STATA 6 Software (Stata Corporation, College Station, TX, USA).
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Result
Bioassays
Point of exhaustion and initial bioefficacy of the treated nets
Before any washing, all treated nets were effective in terms of KD effect and mortality (Table 1). After 3 washes of the CTN, KD and mortality decreased below the WHO threshold (95% KD or 80% mortality). KD and mortality were 85 and 77% respectively. Hence 2 washes were considered as the maximum number of washes required to be just before exhaustion (Table 2).
Table 1
Knockdown and mortality of susceptible An. gambiae (Kisumu strain) recorded after 3 min exposure under WHO cones on nets before any washing
Treatments
N mosquitoes tested
% KD after 60 min
% Mortality after 24 h
Untreated polyester net
52
0a
0a
Life Net to be unwashed
54
100b
100b
Life Net to be washed 20 times
53
100b
100b
Life Net to be washed 30 times
54
100b
100b
CTN 25 mg/m2to be washed just before exhaustion
53
100b
100b
CTN 25 mg/m2to be washed 20 times
57
100b
100b
CTN conventionally deltamethrin-treated nets. Values in the same column sharing different letter superscript differ significantly (χ2 = 101, df = 1, P = 0.000)
Table 2
Knockdown and mortality of susceptible An. gambiae (Kisumu strain) recorded after 3 min exposure under WHO cones on nets conventionally treated with deltamethrin at 25 mg/m2 (CTN) and submitted to successive washes
Knockdown and mortality of susceptible An. gambiae (Kisumu strain) recorded after 3 min exposure under WHO cones on nets after washing and before field testing
Treatments
N mosquitoes tested
% KD after 60 min
% Mortality after 24 h
Untreated polyester net
51
0a
0a
Life Net unwashed
53
100b
100b
Life Net washed 20 times
50
100b
100b
Life Net washed 30 times
51
100b
100b
CTN 25 mg/m2 washed just before exhaustion
53
94b
92c
CTN 25 mg/m2 washed 20 times
50
94b
74d
CTN conventionally deltamethrin-treated nets. Values in the same column sharing different letter superscript differ significantly (χ2 = 92.66, 4.00 and 6.36, df = 1, P = 0.000, 0.045 and 0.012)
Bioefficacy of the treated nets after field testing
Knockdown and mortality of susceptible An. gambiae (Kisumu strain) recorded after 3 min exposure under WHO cones on nets after washing and after field testing
Treatments
N mosquitoes tested
% KD after 60 min
% Mortality after 24 h
Untreated polyester net
49
0a
0a
Life Net unwashed
52
100b
100b
Life Net washed 20 times
54
100b
100b
Life Net washed 30 times
60
100b
100b
CTN 25 mg/m2 washed just before exhaustion
53
94b
81c
CTN 25 mg/m2 washed 20 times
57
63c
60d
CTN conventionally deltamethrin-treated nets. Values in the same column sharing different letter superscript differ significantly (χ2 = 101, 15.65 and 6.04, df = 1, P = 0.000 and 0.014)
Efficacy under experimental huts
The evaluation was run between the 28th November 2010 and the 1st April 2011. Nets were evaluated during 72 collection nights per hut, i.e. 6 nights per week during 12 weeks (two complete Latin squares). We interrupted collections during 6 weeks (from 10th January to 20th February 2011) due to the lack of mosquitoes during the peak of the dry season. In total, 445 females An. gambiae s.l. and 4481 females of other mosquitoes were collected during the trial (Tables 5 and 6).
Table 5
Summary results obtained for free flying wild culicidae (72 nights) in experimental huts
Untreated Net
LifeNet 0 wash
LifeNet 20 washes
LifeNet 30 washes
CTN 25 mg/m2 Exhaust
CTN 25 mg/m2 20 washes
Total females caught
689ab
871a
704ab
654b
825ab
738ab
females caught/night
9.-56
12.-09
9.-77
9.-08
11.-45
10.-25
Deterrency (%)
–
−26
−2
5
−20
−7
Total females veranda
231
338
309
260
276
339
Exophily (%)
34a
39b
44bc
40b
33a
46c
95% Confidence limits
30–37
36–42
40–48
36–44
30–37
42–50
Induced Exophily (%)
–
16
31
19
NS
37
Total females blood fed
224
12
13
15
40
79
Blood fed (%)
33a
1c
2c
2c
5b
11d
95% Confidence limits
29–36
1.-2
1.-3
1.-3
3.-6
8.-13
Blood feeding inhib. (%)
–
96
94
93
85
67
Total females dead
79
846
662
599
687
440
Overall mortality (%)
11a
97c
94d
92d
83b
60e
95% Confidence limits
9.-14
96–98
92–96
89–94
81–86
56–63
Corrected for control (%)
–
97
93
91
81
54
CTN conventionally deltamethrin-treated nets. Values in the same column sharing different letter superscript differ significantly (logistic regression, P = 0.00)
Table 6
Summary results obtained for free flying wild Anopheles gambiae (72 nights) in experimental huts
Untreated Net
LifeNet 0 wash
LifeNet 20 washes
LifeNet 30 washes
CTN 25 mg/m2 Exhaust
CTN 25 mg/m2 20 washes
Total females caught
87a
65a
69a
76a
62a
86a
females caught/night
1.20
0.90
0.96
1.05
0.86
1.19
Deterrency (%)
–
25
21
13
29
1
Total females veranda
13
36
41
47
33
33
Exophily (%)
15 a
55 b
59 b
62 b
53 bc
38 c
95% Confidence limits
7–22
43–67
48–71
51–73
41–66
28–49
Induced Exophily (%)
–
271
298
314
256
157
Total females blood fed
33
3
1
8
9
26
Blood fed (%)
38 a
5 bc
1c
11b
15b
30a
95% Confidence limits
28–48
0–10
0–4
4.-17
6.-23
21–40
Blood feeding inhib. (%)
–
88
96
72
62
20
Total females dead
1
49
48
42
27
22
Overall mortality (%)
1a
75c
70cd
55bd
44b
26e
95% Confidence limits
0–3
65–86
59–80
44–66
31–56
16–35
Corrected for control (%)
–
75
69
55
43
25
CTN conventionally deltamethrin-treated nets. Values in the same column sharing different letter superscript differ significantly (logistic regression, P = 0.00)
An. gambiae s.l. mortality obtained in the control arm (untreated net) was low (1%) and similar to that previously observed with untreated holed mosquito nets [10, 11, 26]. This is the indication that the study design is reliable and no contamination has occurred during the rotation of the treatments among huts. Exophily of An. gambiae recorded during this study in the control arm was lower than that observed in previous experimental hut trials conducted in Malanville (15% here versus 35 to 45% in [10]). All treated nets induced significantly higher exophily rates than the control (from 16 to 37%) for the whole mosquito population collected in the huts. Surprisingly for An. gambiae, a very high induced exophily was observed regardless of the treatment arms (157 to 314%). This could be explained by the low exophily rate recorded in the control hut for this species. Previous studies have shown that female mosquitoes may look for suitable resting sites in order to use the nutritive value of the blood meal to survive until the end of the dry season [27]. Since the trial has been run in the middle of the dry season, the induced exophily trend observed may be explained by this behaviour of An. gambiae in dry season and highlights the importance to consider the season when conducting experimental hut evaluation of insecticide treated materials.
Despite sudden increase of pyrethroid-resistance in malaria vectors in Malanville [15], this study showed that the performance (i.e. blood feeding inhibition and mortality) of LifeNets washed 20 and 30 times was equal or higher than that of a CTN washed to just before exhaustion. The results of this trial showed that the resistance does not seem to be a major obstacle for the evaluation of LLIN products.
We thank Seth IRISH for manuscript revising. We also thank the volunteer participants for their collaboration during the present study.
Funding
Bayer Environmental Science has funded the present evaluation.
Availability of data and materials
The raw data underlying this study is available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
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Ethics approval and consent to participate
The National Research Ethics Committee of Benin approved the study (reference number 24 of December 16th, 2010). Volunteer participants have been informed on the objective of this study and they signed (or through a literate witness if illiterate) an informed consent (written in English and French).
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