Introduction
Participants and methods
Participants
Procedures
Questionnaires
Profile of mood states (POMS)
Perceived stress scale (PSS)
Medical outcomes study short form 8, standard version (SF-8™)
Subjective symptoms
Adverse events
Overall satisfaction
Characteristics of the yoga classes
Characteristics of the typical yoga class
Statistical analyses
Ethical considerations
Results
Participants
Group | H | PH | CD | Total | P value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Number | 70 | 117 | 141 | 328 | |
Number of females (%) | 59 (84.3) | 110 (94.0) | 128 (91.4) | 297 (90.5) | 0.088* |
Age range | 26 - 85 | 21 - 83 | 23 - 96 | 21 - 96 | |
Mean age | 54.7 ± 14.3 | 48.5 ± 14.8 | 58.7 ± 13.9 | 54.2 ± 15.0 | < 0.001# |
Effects on vigor, fatigue, and tension-anxiety
Group | H | PH | CD | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Subscale | Pre | Post | UPV | FPV | d | Pre | Post | UPV | FPV | d | Pre | Post | UPV | FPV | d |
First | |||||||||||||||
V | 49.6±8.2 | 56.8±10.7 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.75 | 45.9±9.5 | 56.3±10.4 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 1.04 | 45.5±10.2 | 53.1±11.4 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.71 |
F | 43.4±8.4 | 37.7±5.3 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.80 | 47.6±9.3 | 37.5±4.2 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 1.41 | 47.9±11.0 | 39.6±5.9 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.94 |
T-A | 43.5±7.4 | 37.0±4.4 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 1.07 | 46.5±10.0 | 36.6±4.6 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 1.27 | 49.6±11.5 | 39.0±6.7 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 1.12 |
Last | |||||||||||||||
V | 49.9±7.7 | 58.0±9.1 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.96 | 48.1±11.4 | 57.9±10.7 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.89 | 47.9±9.4 | 57.0±10.4 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.92 |
F | 44.2±9.1 | 37.4±3.7 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.97 | 46.1±9.6 | 37.3±3.9 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 1.21 | 45.9±10.5 | 38.4±5.3 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.91 |
T-A | 43.2±8.4 | 36.2±4.0 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 1.06 | 43.8±8.4 | 37.0±4.8 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.99 | 45.7±11.1 | 37.3±5.7 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.95 |
Effects on perceived stress
Effects on health-related quality of life
Group | H | PH | CD | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Subscale | First | Last | UPV | FPV | d | First | Last | UPV | FPV | d | First | Last | UPV | FPV | d |
PF | 50.6±5.2 | 50.2±4.4 | 0.541 | 0.601 | 0.08 | 46.2±8.4 | 48.9±6.0 | 0.004 | 0.007 | 0.38 | 43.3±8.8 | 45.8±8.5 | 0.005 | 0.009 | 0.29 |
RP | 49.7±6.0 | 49.6±5.3 | 0.883 | 0.883 | 0.02 | 44.7±8.2 | 46.8±6.6 | 0.017 | 0.026 | 0.29 | 43.3±8.4 | 46.0±8.1 | 0.001 | 0.003 | 0.32 |
BP | 51.2±7.5 | 51.7±6.9 | 0.604 | 0.647 | 0.08 | 43.6±7.8 | 47.5±7.2 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.51 | 43.9±8.3 | 46.6±8.8 | <0.001 | 0.002 | 0.32 |
GH | 50.3±4.9 | 52.0±6.0 | 0.027 | 0.037 | 0.32 | 44.4±8.0 | 47.8±6.9 | <0.001 | 0.002 | 0.45 | 43.3±7.6 | 47.4±7.4 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.53 |
PCS | 50.1±5.6 | 49.8±5.4 | 0.675 | 0.699 | 0.05 | 44.3±7.8 | 47.0±6.5 | 0.003 | 0.006 | 0.38 | 42.1±7.8 | 44.9±8.1 | <0.001 | 0.002 | 0.34 |
VT | 49.4±6.0 | 50.6±5.5 | 0.095 | 0.114 | 0.21 | 45.4±6.5 | 48.7±6.0 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.54 | 45.1±6.1 | 47.4±6.5 | 0.001 | 0.002 | 0.36 |
SF | 49.1±8.2 | 51.0±6.9 | 0.081 | 0.101 | 0.25 | 44.4±8.7 | 46.9±7.9 | 0.002 | 0.004 | 0.31 | 44.5±9.6 | 46.5±8.6 | 0.045 | 0.058 | 0.22 |
RE | 48.6±5.6 | 49.7±5.4 | 0.198 | 0.228 | 0.19 | 45.0±7.0 | 47.4±6.2 | 0.001 | 0.002 | 0.35 | 45.2±8.0 | 47.4±6.9 | 0.003 | 0.006 | 0.30 |
MH | 48.3±6.1 | 50.4±5.7 | 0.021 | 0.029 | 0.34 | 43.3±8.4 | 47.1±7.8 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.47 | 44.3±8.6 | 47.4±7.8 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.39 |
MCS | 47.2±6.8 | 49.5±6.3 | 0.011 | 0.018 | 0.35 | 43.9±8.8 | 46.7±7.8 | <0.001 | 0.002 | 0.34 | 45.2±9.0 | 47.4±7.8 | 0.004 | 0.008 | 0.27 |
Changes in degree of subjective symptoms in the PH and CD groups
NRS score | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Symptoms | N | % | First | Last | UPV | FPV | d | (n) |
PH group | ||||||||
Easy fatigability | 39 | 34.2 | 6.5±2.2 | 4.5±2.4 | 0.001 | 0.004 | 0.87 | (30) |
Shoulder stiffness | 35 | 30.7 | 7.1±2.3 | 4.9±2.9 | 0.001 | 0.004 | 0.85 | (26) |
Low back pain | 30 | 26.3 | 6.0±1.8 | 4.4±2.6 | 0.006 | 0.013 | 0.74 | (23) |
Coldness | 24 | 21.1 | 7.8±1.5 | 5.5±2.1 | <0.001 | 0.002 | 1.21 | (13) |
Headache | 15 | 13.2 | 5.7±2.7 | 2.5±2.5 | 0.006 | 0.013 | 1.23 | (11) |
Insomnia | 14 | 12.3 | 7.6±1.5 | 4.7±2.4 | <0.001 | 0.002 | 1.46 | (13) |
CD group | ||||||||
Easy fatigability | 32 | 23.0 | 6.6±2.3 | 4.9±1.6 | 0.010 | 0.019 | 0.86 | (23) |
Low back pain | 26 | 18.7 | 5.7±2.4 | 4.3±2.8 | 0.001 | 0.004 | 0.54 | (23) |
Knee joint pain | 19 | 13.7 | 6.4±2.4 | 4.6±2.8 | 0.022 | 0.036 | 0.67 | (17) |
Shoulder stiffness | 19 | 13.7 | 7.1±2.1 | 4.6±2.8 | 0.003 | 0.008 | 1.01 | (16) |
Anxiety | 18 | 12.9 | 7.3±1.7 | 5.4±2.2 | 0.002 | 0.005 | 0.98 | (14) |
Insomnia | 14 | 10.1 | 7.3±2.2 | 6.2±2.3 | 0.040 | 0.057 | 0.50 | (10) |
Adverse events
Group | H | PH | CD | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Systems | Symptoms | First | Last | First | Last | First | Last |
Eyes and ears | Blackout | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 2 | 1 |
Pruritus of the eye | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | |
Tinnitus | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | |
Respiratory | Coughing | 2 | 1 | 3 | 2 | 6 | 8 |
Congested nose | 1 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 2 | |
Runny nose | 1 | 3 | 0 | 3 | 6 | 2 | |
Sputum production | 2 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 3 | |
Cardiovascular | Chest pain | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
Palpitation | 2 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 3 | 1 | |
Breathlessness | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 1 | |
Gastrointestinal | Nausea | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 |
Epigastric and abdominal pain | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 3 | |
Diarrhea | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | |
Musculoskeletal | Joint pain | 2 | 1 | 7 | 3 | 8 | 11 |
Muscular pain | 3 | 0 | 5 | 8 | 9 | 17 | |
Skin | Flushing of the face | 3 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 3 | 3 |
Excessive perspiration | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 1 | |
Pruritus of the skin | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2 | |
Neurological | Headache | 1 | 2 | 5 | 2 | 2 | 4 |
Heaviness of the head | 0 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 2 | 0 | |
Feeling hot and cold | 0 | 0 | 4 | 2 | 10 | 2 | |
Faintness (daze) | 4 | 3 | 7 | 4 | 9 | 8 | |
Numbness of a certain body part | 0 | 0 | 5 | 2 | 2 | 1 | |
Twitching in a certain body part | 1 | 2 | 6 | 2 | 5 | 4 | |
Dizziness | 2 | 4 | 6 | 5 | 14 | 5 | |
Fatigue | Feeling of exhaustion | 1 | 1 | 3 | 2 | 5 | 3 |
Feeling sick | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | |
Psychological | Tension | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 3 |
Confusion | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | |
Urge to cry | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | |
Anxiety | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 0 | |
Irritation | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | |
Shaking of the body | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | |
Recollection of bad experiences | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 2 | |
The number experiencing a symptom (%) | 20 (28.6) | 16 (22.9) | 39 (33.3) | 31 (26.5) | 58 (41.1) | 51 (36.2) | |
The number of valid responses | 70 | 117 | 141 |
Systems | Symptoms | Hypertension | Low back pain | Depression | Autonomic dysfunction | Climacteric disorder | Cancer | Bronchial asthma | Diabetes mellitus | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
First | Last | First | Last | First | Last | First | Last | First | Last | First | Last | First | Last | First | Last | ||
Eyes and ears | Blackout | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
Pruritus of the eye | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Tinnitus | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Respiratory | Coughing | 0 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
Congested nose | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Runny nose | 1 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Sputum production | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | |
Cardiovascular | Chest pain | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Palpitation | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Breathlessness | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Gastrointestinal | Nausea | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Epigastric & abdominal pain | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Diarrhea | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Musculoskeletal | Joint pain | 4 | 4 | 2 | 4 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Muscular pain | 2 | 6 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | |
Skin | Flushing of the face | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Excessive perspiration | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | |
Pruritus of the skin | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Neurological | Headache | 1 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Heaviness of the head | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Feeling of hot and cold | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | |
Faintness (daze) | 2 | 4 | 1 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | |
Numbness of a certain body part | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Twitching in a certain body part | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | |
Dizziness | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 3 | 0 | 0 | |
Fatigue | Feeling of exhaustion | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Feeling sick | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Psychological | Tension | 2 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
Confusion | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Gloominess | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Urge to cry | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Anxiety | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Irritation | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Shaking of the body | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Recollection of bad experience | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Scary thoughts | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Frightened feeling | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Heightened emotion | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
The number of attendees who had some the above symptoms (%) | 16 (34.0) | 18 (38.3) | 11 (39.3) | 8 (28.6) | 10 (71.4) | 5 (35.7) | 10 (76.9) | 7 (53.8) | 6 (46.2) | 3 (23.1) | 4 (40.0) | 5 (50.0) | 2 (22.2) | 4 (44.4) | 3 (50.0) | 1 (16.7) | |
The number of valid responses | 47 | 28 | 14 | 13 | 13 | 10 | 9 | 6 |