Background
Methods
Plant material and extraction
Plant (family); and voucher numbera
| Traditional uses | Parts used | Bioactive or potentially bioactive components | Bioactivities of extracts and/or compounds |
---|---|---|---|---|
Piper nigrum L. (Piperaceae); 25818/SFRcam | Cardiovascular diseases, intoxication, inflammation, bacterial, fungal and parasitic infections, respiratory diseases, asthma [8] | Seeds, bark, leaves | Anti-apoptotic [12, 13], antibacterial [8, 14], antidepressant [15] antifungal [16], analgesic, anti-inflammatory [17], antidiarrhoeal [18], antimutagenic, antioxidative, increase plasma [19], antipyretic [17], immuno-modulatory, antispasmodic [20, 21], asthma, obesity, sinus antispermatogenic, antithyroid, antitumor Ciprofloxacin potentiator, transcription inhibitor, insecticidal, hepatoprotective, increase pancreatic enzymes, Cytochrome Inhibitor [8] | |
Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae) 28524/HNC | fruits | Eugenol (2-methoxy-4-(2-propenyl) phenol), glycosides, flavonoids, saponins and tannins [23], essential oils | Antipyretic, antispasmodic [27], anticarcinogenic [28], inhibition of 5-Lox enzyme activity in human polymorphonuclear leukocytes cells [29], antioxidant, protection against peroxynitrite-mediated tyrosine nitration and lipid peroxidation [29], antifungal activity of essential oil [26] and antimicrobial [25], antibacterial [30] | |
Telfairia occidentalis ( Curcubitaceae); 33423/HNC | Microbial infections, cholesterolemia, liver problems and impaired defense immune systems [31] | Leaves, seeds, roots | Phenols, alkaloids and tannins [32] | |
Vernonia amygdalina Del. ( Asteraceae ); 31149/SRFK | Leaves, roots |
Preliminary phytochemical investigations
Bacterial strains and culture media
Chemicals for antimicrobial assays
Bacterial susceptibility determination
Results
Phytochemical composition and antibacterial activity of the extracts
Scientific names | Part used | Yield* (%) | Physical aspect | Secondary metabolites | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alkaloids | Phenols | Tannins | Triterpenes | Steroids | Flavonoids | Anthraquinones | Anthocyanins | Saponins | ||||
Piper nigrum
| Fruits | 13.18 | Brown sticky paste | + | + | + | - | - | + | + | - | - |
Syzygium aromaticum
| Fruits | 9.49 | Dark brown paste | + | - | - | - | - | + | - | - | - |
Telfairia occidentalis
| Leaves | 11.58 | Brown sticky paste | + | + | + | - | - | + | - | + | - |
Vernonia amygdalina
| Leaves | 7.16 | Green dark paste | + | + | + | - | + | + | - | - | + |
Bacteria strains | Plant extracts and MICs (μg/mL) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Piper nigrum
|
Syzygium aromaticum
|
Telfairia occidentalis
|
Vernonia amygdalina
| Chloramphenicol | |
E. coli
| |||||
ATCC8739 | 128 | 1024 | 512 | 512 | 4 |
ATCC10536 | 256 | - | 512 | 512 | 4 |
W3110 | 256 | 512 | 256 | 512 | 8 |
MC4100 | 256 | 1024 | 512 | 512 | 16 |
AG100A | 128 (64) | - | 512 (512) | 512 (512) | < 2 (< 2) |
AG100Atet | 256 (256) | - | 512 (512) | 1024 (1024) | 64 (< 2) |
AG102 | 512 (128) | - | 1024 (1024) | 256 (256) | 64 |
AG100 | 256 (32) | - | 512 (512) | 512 (32) | 8 (< 2) |
E. aerogenes
| |||||
ATCC13048 | 512 | 1024 | 512 | 512 | 8 |
EA294 | 512 | - | 512 | 1024 | 16 |
CM64 | 512 (256) | 1024 | 256 (64) | 256 (32) | 256 (8) |
EA3 | 512 (256) | - | 1024 (1024) | 512 (512) | 256 (128) |
EA298 | 256 (128) | - | 512 (512) | 256 (256) | 64 (< 2) |
EA27 | 512 (256) | - | - | 1024 (1024) | ≥ 256 (< 2) |
EA289 | 512 (256) | 1024 | 512 (256) | 256 (256) | ≥ 256 (64) |
K. pneumoniae
| |||||
ATCC11296 | 256 | 1024 | 1024 | 512 | 8 |
KP55 | 256 (64) | - | 512 (512) | 512 (512) | 32 (4) |
KP63 | 1024 (256) | - | 256 (256) | 1024 (1024) | 64 (< 2) |
K2 | 512 | - | - | 1024 | 32 |
K24 | 512 | - | 512 | 512 | 16 |
P. aeruginosa
| |||||
PA01 | 32 | - | 512 | 512 | 16 |
PA124 | 256 (128) | 512 | 512 (512) | 1024 (1024) | 32 (< 2) |
P. stuartii
| |||||
ATCC29916 | 128 | - | 128 | 256 | 16 |
NAE16 | 512 | 1024 | 512 | 256 | 64 |
PS2636 | 256 | - | 512 | 512 | 32 |
PS299645 | 1024 (1024) | - | 1024 | 512 | 32 |
E. cloacae
| - | ||||
BM47 | 128 | - | 512 | 1024 | ≥ 256 |
ECCI69 | 128 | - | 512 | 512 | ≥ 256 |
BM67 | 128 (32) | - | 512 (16) | 1024 (1024) | 128 (32) |
Role of efflux pumps in the susceptibility of Gram-negative bacteria to the tested plant extracts
Effect of the association of extracts with antibiotics
Bacterial strains, MIC (μg/mL ) of antibiotics in the absence and presence of the extract | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Antibiotics | Extract concentration | PA124 | AG100 | AG102 | AG100Atet | CM64 | EA3 | EA27 | EA289 | BM67 | KP55 | NEA16 | PBSS (%) |
TET
| 0 | 8 | 16 | 256 | 64 | 8 | 16 | 64 | 16 | 8 | > 256 | 4 | |
MIC/2 | 4(2)S
| 16(1)I
| ≤ 2(≥ 128)S
| 16(4)S
| ≤ 2(> 4)S
| 4(4)S
| 16(4)S
| 16(1)I
| 8(1)I
| > 256 | ≤2(> 2)S
| 63.63 | |
MIC/5 | 4(2)S
| 16(1)I
| ≤ 2(≥ 128)S
| 16(4)S
| ≤ 2(> 4)S
| 4(4)S
| 8(8)S
| 16(1)I
| 8(1)I
| > 256 | ≤ 2(> 2)S
| 63.63 | |
DOX
| 0 | 16 | 8 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 8 | 32 | 64 | na |
MIC/2 | 8(2)S
| ≤ 2(> 4)S
| ≤ 2(> 16)S
| ≤ 2(> 16)S
| ≤ 2(> 16)S
| 4(8)S
| 8(4)S
| 32(1)I
| ≤ 2(> 4)S
| 32(1)I
| 4(16)S
| 81.81 | |
MIC/5 | 8(2)S
| ≤ 2(> 4)S
| ≤ 2(> 16)S
| ≤ 2(> 16)S
| 4(8)S
| ≤ 2(> 16)S
| 8(4)S
| 16(1)I
| ≤ 2(> 4)S
| 32(1)I
| ≤ 2(> 32)S
| 81.81 | |
CIP
| 0 | 32 | 4 | 128 | 64 | 64 | 128 | ≤ 2 | 8 | 128 | 64 | 128 | na |
MIC/2 | 32(1)I
| ≤ 2(> 2)S
| 16(8)S
| 4(16)S
| 8(8)S
| 64(2)S
| ≤ 2 | 4(2)S
| 64(2)S
| ≤ 2(> 32)S
| 64(2)S
| 90 | |
MIC/5 | 32(1)I
| ≤ 2(> 2)S
| 64(2)S
| 16(4)S
| 4(16)S
| 64(2)S
| ≤ 2 | 4(2)S
| 128(1)I
| ≤ 2(> 32)S
| 128(1)I
| 70 | |
NFX
| 0 | 128 | 128 | 64 | 128 | ≤ 2 | 128 | 32 | 64 | 128 | 128 | 256 | na |
MIC/2 | 64(2)S
| 4(32)S
| ≤2(> 32)S
| 16(8)S
| ≤ 2 | 32(4)S
| 8(4)S
| 16(4)S
| 128(1)I
| 16(8)S
| 128(2)S
| 90 | |
MIC/5 | 128(1)I
| ≤ 2(> 64)S
| 64(1)I
| 16(8)S
| ≤ 2 | 32(4)S
| 16(2)S
| 16(4)S
| 128(1)I
| 16(8)S
| 128(2)S
| 80 | |
STR
| 0 | 256 | ≤ 2 | 256 | 64 | 8 | 32 | 16 | 64 | ≤ 2 | 4 | 64 | na |
MIC/2 | 256(1)I
| ≤ 2 | 64(4)S
| ≤ 2(> 32)S
| ≤ 2(> 4)S
| ≤ 2(> 16)S
| 32(0.5)I
| 4(16)S
| ≤ 2 | ≤ 2(> 2)S
| ≤ 2(> 32)S
| 77.78 | |
MIC/5 | 256(1)I
| ≤ 2 | 64(4)S
| ≤ 2(> 32)S
| ≤ 2(> 4)S
| 4(8)S
| 16(1)I
| 4(16)S
| ≤ 2 | ≤ 2(> 2)S
| ≤ 2(> 32)S
| 77.78 | |
KAN
| 0 | ND | 8 | 128 | 32 | ≤2 | 16 | 16 | 32 | ≤ 2 | 8 | ≤ 2 | na |
MIC/2 | ND | ≤ 2(> 4)S
| ≤ 2(> 64)S
| 16(2)S
| ≤2 | ≤ 2(> 8)S
| 4(4)S
| 4(8)S
| ≤ 2 | 16(0.5) | ≤ 2 | 75 | |
MIC/5 | ND | ≤ 2(> 4)S
| ≤ 2(> 64)S
| 4(8)S
| ≤2 | ≤ 2(> 8)S
| 4(4)S
| 4(8)S
| ≤ 2 | 8(1)I
| ≤ 2 | 75 | |
CHL
| 0 | 32 | 64 | > 256 | 64 | 256 | 32 | > 256 | > 256 | 64 | 16 | 128 | na |
MIC/2 | 16(2)S
| 4(16)S
| 16(> 16)S
| 64(1)I
| 32(8)S
| 4(8)S
| 32(> 8)S
| > 256 | 32(2)S
| 8(2)S
| 8(16)S
| 81.81 | |
MIC/5 | 32(1)I
| 16(4)S
| 16(> 16)S
| 64(1)I
| 128(2)S
| 4(8)S
| 64(> 4)S
| > 256 | 32(2)S
| 16 | 128(1)I
| 54.54 | |
ERY
| 0 | 128 | 32 | 256 | 128 | > 256 | 256 | 64 | 256 | 256 | 256 | 256 | na |
MIC/2 | 128(1) I
| 8(4)S
| 64(4)S
| 256(0.5)I
| 32(> 8)S
| 64(4)S
| 32(2)S
| 256(1)I
| 64(4)S
| 16(16)S
| 64(4)S
| 72.72 | |
MIC/5 | 128(1)I
| 16(2)S
| 32(4)S
| 128(1)I
| 8(> 32)S
| 256(1)I
| 8(8)S
| 256(1)I
| 128(2)S
| 16(16)S
| 64(4)S
| 63.63 | |
AMP
| 0 | 128 | 128 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | >256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | na |
MIC/2 | 128(1)I
| 128(1)I
| > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | na | |
MIC/5 | 128(1)I
| 128(1)I
| > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | na | |
FEP
| 0 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | na |
MIC/2 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | na | |
MIC/5 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | >256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | na | |
CLX
| 0 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | na |
MIC/2 | > 256 | 16(> 16)S
| > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | 1.1 | |
MIC/5 | > 256 | 32(> 8)S
| > 256 | > 256 | 64(> 4)S
| > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | 18.2 |
Antibioticsa
| Bacterial strainsb, MIC (μg/mL ) of antibiotics in the absence and presence of the extract | PBSSc(%) | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Extract concentration | PA124 | AG100 | AG102 | AG100Atet | CM64 | EA3 | EA27 | EA289 | BM67 | KP55 | NEA16 | ||
TET | 0 | 8 | 16 | 256 | 64 | 8 | 16 | 64 | 16 | 8 | > 256 | 4 | |
MIC/2 | 4(2)S
| 8(2)S
| 256(1)I
| 32(2)S
| ≤ 2(> 4)S
| ≤ 2(> 8)S
| 64(1)I
| 8(2)S
| 4(2)S
| 256(> 1)s
| ≤ 2(> 2)S
| 81.8 | |
MIC/5 | 4(2)S
| 8(2)S
| 256(1)I
| 32(2)S
| ≤ 2(> 4)S
| ≤ 2(> 8)S
| 64(1)I
| 8(2)S
| 4(2)S
| 256(> 1)s
| 4(1)I
| 72.7 | |
DOX | 0 | 16 | 8 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 8 | 32 | 64 | na |
MIC/2 | 2(8)S
| ≤ 2(> 4)S
| 16(2)S
| 4(8)S
| 4(8)S
| ≤ 2(> 16)S
| 4(8)S
| 16(2)S
| 4(2)S
| ≤ 2(> 16)S
| 32(2)S
| 100 | |
MIC/5 | 8(2)S
| ≤ 2(> 4)S
| 32(1)I
| 8(4)S
| ≤ 2(> 16)S
| ≤ 2(> 16)S
| 8(4)S
| 16(2)S
| ≤ 2(> 4)S
| 64(< 0.5) | 64(1)I
| 72.7 | |
CIP | 0 | 32 | 4 | 128 | 64 | 64 | 128 | ≤ 2 | 8 | 128 | 64 | 128 | na |
MIC/2 | 32(1)I
| ≤ 2(> 2)S
| 64(2)S
| ≤ 2(> 32)S
| 16(4)S
| ≤ 2(> 64)S
| ≤ 2 | ≤ 2(> 4)S
| 128(1)I
| ≤ 2(> 32)S
| 128(1)I
| 70 | |
MIC/5 | 32(1)I
| ≤ 2(> 2)S
| 64(2)S
| ≤ 2(> 32)S
| 16(4)S
| ≤ 2(> 64)S
| ≤ 2 | ≤ 2(> 4)S
| 128(1)I
| ≤ 2(> 32)S
| 128(1)I
| 70 | |
NFX | 0 | 128 | 128 | 64 | 128 | ≤ 2 | 128 | 32 | 64 | 128 | 128 | 256 | na |
MIC/2 | 64(2)s
| 4(32)S
| 32(2)S
| 4(32)S
| ≤ 2 | 4(32)S
| 4(8)S
| 32(2)S
| 128(1)I
| ≤ 2(> 64)S
| 128(2)S
| 90 | |
MIC/5 | 32(4)s
| 4(32)S
| 32(2)S
| 4(32)S
| ≤ 2 | 4(32)S
| 4(8)S
| 16(4)S
| 128(1)I
| 8(16)S
| 256(1)I
| 80 | |
STR | 0 | 256 | ≤ 2 | 256 | 64 | 8 | 32 | 16 | 64 | ≤ 2 | 4 | 64 | na |
MIC/2 | 256(1)I
| ≤ 2 | 256(1)I
| 16(4)S
| ≤ 2(> 4)S
| ≤ 2(> 16)S
| 16(1)I
| ≤ 2(> 32)S
| ≤ 2 | ≤ 2(> 2)S
| 16(4)S
| 66.7 | |
MIC/5 | 256(1)I
| ≤ 2 | 256(1)I
| 8(8)S
| ≤ 2(> 4)S
| ≤ 2(> 16)S
| 16(1)I
| ≤ 2(> 32)S
| ≤ 2 | ≤ 2(> 2)S
| 16(4)S
| 66.7 | |
KAN | 0 | ND | 8 | 128 | 32 | ≤ 2 | 16 | 16 | 32 | ≤ 2 | 8 | ≤ 2 | na |
MIC/2 | ND | 4(2)S
| 128(1)I
| 8(4)S
| ≤ 2 | ≤ 2(> 8)S
| ≤ 2(> 8)S
| ≤ 2(> 16)S
| ≤ 2 | 8(1)I
| ≤ 2 | 71.4 | |
MIC/5 | ND | 4(2)S
| 128 (1)I
| ≤ 2(> 16)S
| ≤ 2 | ≤ 2(> 8)S
| ≤ 2(> 8)S
| ≤ 2(> 16)S
| ≤ 2 | 8(1)I
| ≤ 2 | 71.4 | |
CHL | 0 | 32 | 64 | > 256 | 64 | 256 | 32 | > 256 | 64 | 16 | 128 | 128 | na |
MIC/2 | 16(2)s
| 32(2)S
| > 256 | 64(1)I
| ≤ 2(> 128)S
| 4(8)S
| 256(> 1)s
| 16(4)S
| ≤ 2(> 8)S
| 16(8)S
| 16(8)S
| 90 | |
MIC/5 | 32(1)I
| 32(2)S
| > 256 | 64(1)I
| ≤ 2(> 128)S
| 8(4)S
| 256(> 1)s
| 32(2)S
| 16(1)I
| 64(2)S
| 64(2)S
| 70 | |
ERY | 0 | 128 | 32 | 256 | 128 | > 256 | 256 | 64 | 256 | 256 | 256 | 256 | na |
MIC/2 | 64(2)s
| 16(2)S
| > 256 | 32(4)S
| ≤ 2 | 4(64)S
| 32(2)S
| 64(4)S
| 32(8)S
| 8(32)S
| 128(2)S
| 72.7 | |
MIC/5 | 64(2)s
| 32(1)I
| > 256 | 32(4)S
| 64(> 4)S
| 4(64)s
| 64(1)I
| 256(1)I
| 32(8)S
| 16(16)S
| 128(2)S
| 45.5 | |
AMP | 0 | 128 | 128 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | na |
MIC/2 | 256(0.5) I
| 128(1)I
| > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | 256(> 1)s
| > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | na | |
MIC/5 | 256(0.5) I
| 128(1)I
| > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | na | |
FEP | 0 | ND | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | 256 | > 256 | > 256 | na |
MIC/2 | ND | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256(< 1) | 8(> 32)S
| > 256 | 1.1 | |
MIC/5 | ND | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256(< 1) | > 256 | > 256 | na | |
CLX | 0 | > 256 | 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | na |
MIC/2 | > 256 | 64(> 4)S
| > 256 | > 256 | 256(≥2) S
| 64(> 4)S
| > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | 27.3 | |
MIC/5 | > 256 | 64(> 4)S
| > 256 | > 256 | 256(≥2) S
| 128(> 2)S
| > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | > 256 | 27.3 |