Skip to main content
Erschienen in: Current Allergy and Asthma Reports 11/2015

01.11.2015 | Allergens (RK Bush and JA Woodfolk, Section Editors)

The Role of the Skin Microbiome in Atopic Dermatitis

verfasst von: Michael R. Williams, Richard L. Gallo

Erschienen in: Current Allergy and Asthma Reports | Ausgabe 11/2015

Einloggen, um Zugang zu erhalten

Abstract

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a common skin disease that affects a large proportion of the population worldwide. The incidence of AD has increased over the last several decades along with AD’s burden on the physical and psychological health of the patient and family. However, current advances in understanding the mechanisms behind the pathophysiology of AD are leading to a hopeful outlook for the future. Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) colonization on AD skin has been directly correlated to disease severity but the functions of other members of the skin bacterial community may be equally important. Applying knowledge gained from understanding the role of the skin microbiome in maintaining normal skin immune function, and addressing the detrimental consequences of microbial dysbiosis in driving inflammation, is a promising direction for development of new treatments. This review discusses current preclinical and clinical research focused on determining how the skin microbiome may influence the development of AD.
Literatur
1.
Zurück zum Zitat Beiber T. Mechanisms of disease atopic dermatitis. NEJM. 2008;358:12.CrossRef Beiber T. Mechanisms of disease atopic dermatitis. NEJM. 2008;358:12.CrossRef
2.
Zurück zum Zitat Carroll CL, Balkrishnan R, Feldman SR, Fleischer AB, Manuel JC. The burden of atopic dermatitis: impact on the patient, family, and society. Pediatr Dermatol. 2005;22:8.CrossRef Carroll CL, Balkrishnan R, Feldman SR, Fleischer AB, Manuel JC. The burden of atopic dermatitis: impact on the patient, family, and society. Pediatr Dermatol. 2005;22:8.CrossRef
3.
Zurück zum Zitat Beikert FC, Langenbruch AK, Radtke MA, Kornek T, Purwins S, Augustin M. Willingness to pay and quality of life in patients with atopic dermatitis. Arch Dermatol Res. 2014;306:279–86.CrossRefPubMed Beikert FC, Langenbruch AK, Radtke MA, Kornek T, Purwins S, Augustin M. Willingness to pay and quality of life in patients with atopic dermatitis. Arch Dermatol Res. 2014;306:279–86.CrossRefPubMed
4.
Zurück zum Zitat Su JC, Kemp AS, Varigos GA, Nolan TM. Atopic eczema: its impact on the family and financial cost. Arch Dis Child. 1997;76:4.CrossRef Su JC, Kemp AS, Varigos GA, Nolan TM. Atopic eczema: its impact on the family and financial cost. Arch Dis Child. 1997;76:4.CrossRef
5.
Zurück zum Zitat Kapoor R, Menon C, Hoffstad O, Bilker W, Leclerc P, Margolis DJ. The prevalence of atopic triad in children with physician-confirmed atopic dermatitis. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2008;58:68–73.CrossRefPubMed Kapoor R, Menon C, Hoffstad O, Bilker W, Leclerc P, Margolis DJ. The prevalence of atopic triad in children with physician-confirmed atopic dermatitis. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2008;58:68–73.CrossRefPubMed
6.
Zurück zum Zitat Ring J, Kramer U, Schafer T, Behrendt H. Why are allergies increasing? Curr Opin Immunol. 2001;13:8. Ring J, Kramer U, Schafer T, Behrendt H. Why are allergies increasing? Curr Opin Immunol. 2001;13:8.
7.
Zurück zum Zitat Williams H, Stewart A, von Mutius E, Cookson W, Anderson HR, International Study of, A., Allergies in Childhood Phase, O., and Three Study, G. Is eczema really on the increase worldwide? J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2008;121:947–54. e915.CrossRefPubMed Williams H, Stewart A, von Mutius E, Cookson W, Anderson HR, International Study of, A., Allergies in Childhood Phase, O., and Three Study, G. Is eczema really on the increase worldwide? J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2008;121:947–54. e915.CrossRefPubMed
8.
Zurück zum Zitat Kato A, Fukai K, Oiso N, Hosomi N, Murakami T, Ishii M. Association of SPINK5 gene polymorphisms with atopic dermatitis in the Japanese population. Br J Dermatol. 2003;148:665.CrossRefPubMed Kato A, Fukai K, Oiso N, Hosomi N, Murakami T, Ishii M. Association of SPINK5 gene polymorphisms with atopic dermatitis in the Japanese population. Br J Dermatol. 2003;148:665.CrossRefPubMed
9.
Zurück zum Zitat Palmer CN, Irvine AD, Terron-Kwiatkowski A, Zhao Y, Liao H, Lee SP, et al. Common loss-of-function variants of the epidermal barrier protein filaggrin are a major predisposing factor for atopic dermatitis. Nat Genet. 2006;38:441–6.CrossRefPubMed Palmer CN, Irvine AD, Terron-Kwiatkowski A, Zhao Y, Liao H, Lee SP, et al. Common loss-of-function variants of the epidermal barrier protein filaggrin are a major predisposing factor for atopic dermatitis. Nat Genet. 2006;38:441–6.CrossRefPubMed
10.
Zurück zum Zitat Weidinger S, Illig T, Baurecht H, Irvine AD, Rodriguez E, Diaz-Lacava A, et al. Loss-of-function variations within the filaggrin gene predispose for atopic dermatitis with allergic sensitizations. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2006;118:214–9.CrossRefPubMed Weidinger S, Illig T, Baurecht H, Irvine AD, Rodriguez E, Diaz-Lacava A, et al. Loss-of-function variations within the filaggrin gene predispose for atopic dermatitis with allergic sensitizations. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2006;118:214–9.CrossRefPubMed
11.
Zurück zum Zitat Zhao LP, Di Z, Zhang L, Wang L, Ma L, Lv Y, et al. Association of SPINK5 gene polymorphisms with atopic dermatitis in Northeast China. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2012;26:572–7.CrossRefPubMed Zhao LP, Di Z, Zhang L, Wang L, Ma L, Lv Y, et al. Association of SPINK5 gene polymorphisms with atopic dermatitis in Northeast China. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2012;26:572–7.CrossRefPubMed
12.
Zurück zum Zitat De Benedetto A, Rafaels NM, McGirt LY, Ivanov AI, Georas SN, Cheadle C, et al. Tight junction defects in patients with atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2011;127(773–786):e771–7. De Benedetto A, Rafaels NM, McGirt LY, Ivanov AI, Georas SN, Cheadle C, et al. Tight junction defects in patients with atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2011;127(773–786):e771–7.
13.
Zurück zum Zitat Kawashima T, Noguchi E, Arinami T, Yamakawa-Kobayashi K, Nakagawa H, Otsuka F, et al. Linkage and association of an interleukin 4 gene polymorphism with atopic dermatitis in Japanese families. J Med Genet. 1998;35:502–4.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Kawashima T, Noguchi E, Arinami T, Yamakawa-Kobayashi K, Nakagawa H, Otsuka F, et al. Linkage and association of an interleukin 4 gene polymorphism with atopic dermatitis in Japanese families. J Med Genet. 1998;35:502–4.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
14.
Zurück zum Zitat Tsunemi Y, Saeki H, Nakamura K, Sekiya T, Hirai K, Kakinuma T, et al. Interleukin-13 gene polymorphism G4257A is associated with atopic dermatitis in Japanese patients. J Dermatol Sci. 2002;30:100–7.CrossRefPubMed Tsunemi Y, Saeki H, Nakamura K, Sekiya T, Hirai K, Kakinuma T, et al. Interleukin-13 gene polymorphism G4257A is associated with atopic dermatitis in Japanese patients. J Dermatol Sci. 2002;30:100–7.CrossRefPubMed
15.
Zurück zum Zitat Eigenmann PA, Sicherer SH, Borkowski TA, Cohen BA, Sampson HA. Prevelance of IgE-mediated food allergy among children with atopic dermatitis. Pediatrics. 1998;101:6.CrossRef Eigenmann PA, Sicherer SH, Borkowski TA, Cohen BA, Sampson HA. Prevelance of IgE-mediated food allergy among children with atopic dermatitis. Pediatrics. 1998;101:6.CrossRef
16.
Zurück zum Zitat Fuiano N, Fusilli S, Incorvaia C. House dust mite-related allergic diseases: role of skin prick test, atopy patch test, and RAST in the diagnosis of different manifestations of allergy. Eur J Pediatr. 2010;169:819–24.CrossRefPubMed Fuiano N, Fusilli S, Incorvaia C. House dust mite-related allergic diseases: role of skin prick test, atopy patch test, and RAST in the diagnosis of different manifestations of allergy. Eur J Pediatr. 2010;169:819–24.CrossRefPubMed
19.
Zurück zum Zitat Oyoshi MK, He R, Kumar L, Yoon J, Geha RS. Chapter 3 cellular and molecular mechanisms in atopic. Dermatitis. 2009;102:135–226. Oyoshi MK, He R, Kumar L, Yoon J, Geha RS. Chapter 3 cellular and molecular mechanisms in atopic. Dermatitis. 2009;102:135–226.
20.
Zurück zum Zitat Grice EA, Kong HH, Conlan S, Deming CB, Davis J, Young AC, et al. Topographical and temporal diversity of the human skin microbiome. Science. 2009;324:1190–2.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Grice EA, Kong HH, Conlan S, Deming CB, Davis J, Young AC, et al. Topographical and temporal diversity of the human skin microbiome. Science. 2009;324:1190–2.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
22.
Zurück zum Zitat Leyden JJ, Marples RR, Kligman AM. Staphylococcus aureus in the lesions of atopic dermatitis. Br J Dermatol. 1974;90:525–30.CrossRefPubMed Leyden JJ, Marples RR, Kligman AM. Staphylococcus aureus in the lesions of atopic dermatitis. Br J Dermatol. 1974;90:525–30.CrossRefPubMed
23.•
Zurück zum Zitat Kong HH, Oh J, Deming C, Conlan S, Grice EA, Beatson MA, et al. Temporal shifts in the skin microbiome associated with disease flares and treatment in children with atopic dermatitis. Genome Res. 2012;22:850–9. First study to use 16S rRNA sequencing to analyze the skin microbiome of normal versus atopic dermatitis patients.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Kong HH, Oh J, Deming C, Conlan S, Grice EA, Beatson MA, et al. Temporal shifts in the skin microbiome associated with disease flares and treatment in children with atopic dermatitis. Genome Res. 2012;22:850–9. First study to use 16S rRNA sequencing to analyze the skin microbiome of normal versus atopic dermatitis patients.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
24.
Zurück zum Zitat Fitz-Gibbon S, Tomida S, Chiu BH, Nguyen L, Du C, Liu M, et al. Propionibacterium acnes strain populations in the human skin microbiome associated with acne. J Invest Dermatol. 2013;133:2152–60.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Fitz-Gibbon S, Tomida S, Chiu BH, Nguyen L, Du C, Liu M, et al. Propionibacterium acnes strain populations in the human skin microbiome associated with acne. J Invest Dermatol. 2013;133:2152–60.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
25.
Zurück zum Zitat Tomida S, Nguyen L, Chiu BH, Liu J, Sodergren E, Weinstock GM, et al. Pan-genome and comparative genome analyses of propionibacterium acnes reveal its genomic diversity in the healthy and diseased human skin microbiome. mBio. 2013;4:e00003–13.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Tomida S, Nguyen L, Chiu BH, Liu J, Sodergren E, Weinstock GM, et al. Pan-genome and comparative genome analyses of propionibacterium acnes reveal its genomic diversity in the healthy and diseased human skin microbiome. mBio. 2013;4:e00003–13.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
26.
Zurück zum Zitat Wang Y, Kuo S, Shu M, Yu J, Huang S, Dai A, et al. Staphylococcus epidermidis in the human skin microbiome mediates fermentation to inhibit the growth of Propionibacterium acnes: implications of probiotics in acne vulgaris. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2014;98:411–24.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Wang Y, Kuo S, Shu M, Yu J, Huang S, Dai A, et al. Staphylococcus epidermidis in the human skin microbiome mediates fermentation to inhibit the growth of Propionibacterium acnes: implications of probiotics in acne vulgaris. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2014;98:411–24.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
27.
Zurück zum Zitat Kloos WE, Musselwhite MS. Distribution and persistence of Staphylococcus and Micrococcus species and other aerobic bacteria on human skin. Appl Microbiol. 1975;30:381–5.PubMedCentralPubMed Kloos WE, Musselwhite MS. Distribution and persistence of Staphylococcus and Micrococcus species and other aerobic bacteria on human skin. Appl Microbiol. 1975;30:381–5.PubMedCentralPubMed
28.••
Zurück zum Zitat Oh J, Byrd AL, Deming C, Conlan S, Program NCS, Kong HH, et al. Biogeography and individuality shape function in the human skin metagenome. Nature. 2014;514:59–64. Major study involving the use of metagenomics to define the skin microbiome.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Oh J, Byrd AL, Deming C, Conlan S, Program NCS, Kong HH, et al. Biogeography and individuality shape function in the human skin metagenome. Nature. 2014;514:59–64. Major study involving the use of metagenomics to define the skin microbiome.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
29.
Zurück zum Zitat Belkaid Y, Segre JA. Dialogue between skin microbiota and immunity. Science. 2014;346:7.CrossRef Belkaid Y, Segre JA. Dialogue between skin microbiota and immunity. Science. 2014;346:7.CrossRef
30.
31.
Zurück zum Zitat Lai Y, Di Nardo A, Nakatsuji T, Leichtle A, Yang Y, Cogen AL, et al. Commensal bacteria regulate Toll-like receptor 3-dependent inflammation after skin injury. Nat Med. 2009;15:1377–82.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Lai Y, Di Nardo A, Nakatsuji T, Leichtle A, Yang Y, Cogen AL, et al. Commensal bacteria regulate Toll-like receptor 3-dependent inflammation after skin injury. Nat Med. 2009;15:1377–82.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
32.•
Zurück zum Zitat Naik S, Bouladoux N, Wilhelm C, Molloy MJ, Salcedo R, Kastenmuller W, et al. Compartmentalized control of skin immunity by resident commensals. Science. 2012;337:1115–9. Demonstrated direct communication between skin commensal bacteria and host immune response in murine models.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Naik S, Bouladoux N, Wilhelm C, Molloy MJ, Salcedo R, Kastenmuller W, et al. Compartmentalized control of skin immunity by resident commensals. Science. 2012;337:1115–9. Demonstrated direct communication between skin commensal bacteria and host immune response in murine models.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
33.
Zurück zum Zitat Lai Y, Cogen AL, Radek KA, Park HJ, Macleod DT, Leichtle A, et al. Activation of TLR2 by a small molecule produced by Staphylococcus epidermidis increases antimicrobial defense against bacterial skin infections. J Invest Dermatol. 2010;130:2211–21.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Lai Y, Cogen AL, Radek KA, Park HJ, Macleod DT, Leichtle A, et al. Activation of TLR2 by a small molecule produced by Staphylococcus epidermidis increases antimicrobial defense against bacterial skin infections. J Invest Dermatol. 2010;130:2211–21.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
34.
Zurück zum Zitat Wang Z, MacLeod DT, Di Nardo A. Commensal bacteria lipoteichoic acid increases skin mast cell antimicrobial activity against vaccinia viruses. J Immunol. 2012;189:1551–8.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Wang Z, MacLeod DT, Di Nardo A. Commensal bacteria lipoteichoic acid increases skin mast cell antimicrobial activity against vaccinia viruses. J Immunol. 2012;189:1551–8.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
35.
Zurück zum Zitat Yuki T, Yoshida H, Akazawa Y, Komiya A, Sugiyama Y, Inoue S. Activation of TLR2 enhances tight junction barrier in epidermal keratinocytes. J Immunol. 2011;187:3230–7.CrossRefPubMed Yuki T, Yoshida H, Akazawa Y, Komiya A, Sugiyama Y, Inoue S. Activation of TLR2 enhances tight junction barrier in epidermal keratinocytes. J Immunol. 2011;187:3230–7.CrossRefPubMed
36.••
Zurück zum Zitat Nakatsuji T, Chiang HI, Jiang SB, Nagarajan H, Zengler K, Gallo RL. The microbiome extends to subepidermal compartments of normal skin. Nat Commun. 2013;4:1431. Revolutionary study indentifying that microbial communities can penetrate and reside in deeper layers of the skin.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Nakatsuji T, Chiang HI, Jiang SB, Nagarajan H, Zengler K, Gallo RL. The microbiome extends to subepidermal compartments of normal skin. Nat Commun. 2013;4:1431. Revolutionary study indentifying that microbial communities can penetrate and reside in deeper layers of the skin.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
38.
Zurück zum Zitat Sugimoto S, Iwamoto T, Takada K, Okuda K, Tajima A, Iwase T, et al. Staphylococcus epidermidis Esp degrades specific proteins associated with Staphylococcus aureus biofilm formation and host-pathogen interaction. J Bacteriol. 2013;195:1645–55.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Sugimoto S, Iwamoto T, Takada K, Okuda K, Tajima A, Iwase T, et al. Staphylococcus epidermidis Esp degrades specific proteins associated with Staphylococcus aureus biofilm formation and host-pathogen interaction. J Bacteriol. 2013;195:1645–55.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
39.
Zurück zum Zitat Cogen AL, Yamasaki K, Sanchez KM, Dorschner RA, Lai Y, MacLeod DT, et al. Selective antimicrobial action is provided by phenol-soluble modulins derived from Staphylococcus epidermidis, a normal resident of the skin. J Invest Dermatol. 2010;130:192–200.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Cogen AL, Yamasaki K, Sanchez KM, Dorschner RA, Lai Y, MacLeod DT, et al. Selective antimicrobial action is provided by phenol-soluble modulins derived from Staphylococcus epidermidis, a normal resident of the skin. J Invest Dermatol. 2010;130:192–200.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
40.
Zurück zum Zitat Shu M, Wang Y, Yu J, Kuo S, Coda A, Jiang Y, et al. Fermentation of Propionibacterium acnes, a commensal bacterium in the human skin microbiome, as skin probiotics against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. PLoS One. 2013;8, e55380.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Shu M, Wang Y, Yu J, Kuo S, Coda A, Jiang Y, et al. Fermentation of Propionibacterium acnes, a commensal bacterium in the human skin microbiome, as skin probiotics against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. PLoS One. 2013;8, e55380.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
41.
Zurück zum Zitat Gong JQ, Lin L, Lin T, Hao F, Zeng FQ, Bi ZG, et al. Skin colonization by Staphylococcus aureus in patients with eczema and atopic dermatitis and relevant combined topical therapy: a double-blind multicentre randomized controlled trial. Br J Dermatol. 2006;155:680–7.CrossRefPubMed Gong JQ, Lin L, Lin T, Hao F, Zeng FQ, Bi ZG, et al. Skin colonization by Staphylococcus aureus in patients with eczema and atopic dermatitis and relevant combined topical therapy: a double-blind multicentre randomized controlled trial. Br J Dermatol. 2006;155:680–7.CrossRefPubMed
42.
Zurück zum Zitat Pascolini C, Sinagra J, Pecetta S, Bordignon V, De Santis A, Cilli L, et al. Molecular and immunological characterization of Staphylococcus aureus in pediatric atopic dermatitis: implications for prophylaxis and clinical management. Clin Dev Immunol. 2011;2011:718708.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Pascolini C, Sinagra J, Pecetta S, Bordignon V, De Santis A, Cilli L, et al. Molecular and immunological characterization of Staphylococcus aureus in pediatric atopic dermatitis: implications for prophylaxis and clinical management. Clin Dev Immunol. 2011;2011:718708.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
43.
Zurück zum Zitat Chavanas S, Bodemer C, Rochat A, Hamel-Teillac D, Ali M, Irvine AD, et al. Mutations in SPINK5, encoding a serine protease inhibitor, cause Netherton syndrome. Nat Genet. 2000;25:2. Chavanas S, Bodemer C, Rochat A, Hamel-Teillac D, Ali M, Irvine AD, et al. Mutations in SPINK5, encoding a serine protease inhibitor, cause Netherton syndrome. Nat Genet. 2000;25:2.
44.
Zurück zum Zitat Hannula-Jouppi K, Laasanen SL, Heikkila H, Tuomiranta M, Tuomi ML, Hilvo S, et al. IgE allergen component-based profiling and atopic manifestations in patients with Netherton syndrome. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2014;134:985–8.CrossRefPubMed Hannula-Jouppi K, Laasanen SL, Heikkila H, Tuomiranta M, Tuomi ML, Hilvo S, et al. IgE allergen component-based profiling and atopic manifestations in patients with Netherton syndrome. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2014;134:985–8.CrossRefPubMed
45.
Zurück zum Zitat Renner ED, Hartl D, Rylaarsdam S, Young ML, Monaco-Shawver L, Kleiner G, et al. Comel-Netherton syndrome defined as primary immunodeficiency. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2009;124:536–43.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Renner ED, Hartl D, Rylaarsdam S, Young ML, Monaco-Shawver L, Kleiner G, et al. Comel-Netherton syndrome defined as primary immunodeficiency. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2009;124:536–43.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
46.•
Zurück zum Zitat Oh J, Freeman AF, Program NCS, Park M, Sokolic R, Candotti F, et al. The altered landscape of the human skin microbiome in patients with primary immunodeficiencies. Genome Res. 2013;23:2103–14. Second major study analyzing how the skin microbiome composition is effected during disease states by 16S rRNA sequencing.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Oh J, Freeman AF, Program NCS, Park M, Sokolic R, Candotti F, et al. The altered landscape of the human skin microbiome in patients with primary immunodeficiencies. Genome Res. 2013;23:2103–14. Second major study analyzing how the skin microbiome composition is effected during disease states by 16S rRNA sequencing.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
47.
Zurück zum Zitat Knor T, Meholjic-Fetahovic A, Mehmedagic A. Stratum corneum hydration and skin surface pH in patients with atopic dermatitis. Acta Dermatovenerol Croat ADC. 2011;19:242–7.PubMed Knor T, Meholjic-Fetahovic A, Mehmedagic A. Stratum corneum hydration and skin surface pH in patients with atopic dermatitis. Acta Dermatovenerol Croat ADC. 2011;19:242–7.PubMed
48.
Zurück zum Zitat Rippke F, Schreiner V, Doering T, Maibach HI. Stratum corneum pH in atopic dermatitis: impact on skin barrier function and colonization with Staphylococcus Aureus. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2004;5:217–23.CrossRefPubMed Rippke F, Schreiner V, Doering T, Maibach HI. Stratum corneum pH in atopic dermatitis: impact on skin barrier function and colonization with Staphylococcus Aureus. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2004;5:217–23.CrossRefPubMed
49.
Zurück zum Zitat Bhanu S, Francois PP, NuBe O, Foti M, Hartford OM, Vaudaux P, et al. Fibronectin-binding protein acts as Staphylococcus aureus invasin via fibronectin bridging to integrin α5β1. Cell Microbiol. 1999;1:17. Bhanu S, Francois PP, NuBe O, Foti M, Hartford OM, Vaudaux P, et al. Fibronectin-binding protein acts as Staphylococcus aureus invasin via fibronectin bridging to integrin α5β1. Cell Microbiol. 1999;1:17.
50.
Zurück zum Zitat Cho SH, Strickland I, Boguniewicz M, Leung DY. Fibronectin and fibrinogen contribute to the enhanced binding of Staphylococcus aureus to atopic skin. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001;108:269–74.CrossRefPubMed Cho SH, Strickland I, Boguniewicz M, Leung DY. Fibronectin and fibrinogen contribute to the enhanced binding of Staphylococcus aureus to atopic skin. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001;108:269–74.CrossRefPubMed
51.
Zurück zum Zitat Dean SN, Bishop BM, van Hoek ML. Natural and synthetic cathelicidin peptides with anti-microbial and anti-biofilm activity against Staphylococcus aureus. BMC Microbiol. 2011;11:114.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Dean SN, Bishop BM, van Hoek ML. Natural and synthetic cathelicidin peptides with anti-microbial and anti-biofilm activity against Staphylococcus aureus. BMC Microbiol. 2011;11:114.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
52.
Zurück zum Zitat Harder J, Bartels J, Christophers E, Schroder JM. Isolation and characterization of human beta -defensin-3, a novel human inducible peptide antibiotic. J Biol Chem. 2001;276:5707–13.CrossRefPubMed Harder J, Bartels J, Christophers E, Schroder JM. Isolation and characterization of human beta -defensin-3, a novel human inducible peptide antibiotic. J Biol Chem. 2001;276:5707–13.CrossRefPubMed
53.
Zurück zum Zitat Ong PY, Ohtake T, Brandt C, Strickland I, Boguniewicz M, Ganz T, et al. Endogenous antimicrobial peptides and skin infections in atopic dermatitis. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:10.CrossRef Ong PY, Ohtake T, Brandt C, Strickland I, Boguniewicz M, Ganz T, et al. Endogenous antimicrobial peptides and skin infections in atopic dermatitis. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:10.CrossRef
54.
Zurück zum Zitat Nomura I, Goleva E, Howell MD, Hamid QA, Ong PY, Hall CF, et al. Cytokine milieu of atopic dermatitis, as compared to psoriasis, skin prevents induction of innate immune response genes. J Immunol. 2003;171:3262–9.CrossRefPubMed Nomura I, Goleva E, Howell MD, Hamid QA, Ong PY, Hall CF, et al. Cytokine milieu of atopic dermatitis, as compared to psoriasis, skin prevents induction of innate immune response genes. J Immunol. 2003;171:3262–9.CrossRefPubMed
55.
Zurück zum Zitat Howell MD, Novak N, Bieber T, Pastore S, Girolomoni G, Boguniewicz M, et al. Interleukin-10 downregulates anti-microbial peptide expression in atopic dermatitis. J Invest Dermatol. 2005;125:738–45.CrossRefPubMed Howell MD, Novak N, Bieber T, Pastore S, Girolomoni G, Boguniewicz M, et al. Interleukin-10 downregulates anti-microbial peptide expression in atopic dermatitis. J Invest Dermatol. 2005;125:738–45.CrossRefPubMed
56.
Zurück zum Zitat McFadden JP, Noble WC, Camp RD. Superantigenic exotoxin-secreting potential of staphylococci isolated from atopic eczematous skin. Br J Dermatol. 1993;128:631–2.CrossRefPubMed McFadden JP, Noble WC, Camp RD. Superantigenic exotoxin-secreting potential of staphylococci isolated from atopic eczematous skin. Br J Dermatol. 1993;128:631–2.CrossRefPubMed
57.
Zurück zum Zitat Zollner TM, Wichelhaus TA, Hartung A, Von Mallinckrodt C, Wagner TO, Brade V, et al. Colonization with superantigen-producing Staphylococcus aureus is associated with increased severity of atopic dermatitis. Clin Exp Allergy. 2000;30:7.CrossRef Zollner TM, Wichelhaus TA, Hartung A, Von Mallinckrodt C, Wagner TO, Brade V, et al. Colonization with superantigen-producing Staphylococcus aureus is associated with increased severity of atopic dermatitis. Clin Exp Allergy. 2000;30:7.CrossRef
58.
Zurück zum Zitat Johnson WM, Tyler SD, Ewan EP, Ashton FE, Pollard DR, Rozee KR. Detection of genes for enterotoxins, exfoliative toxins, and toxic shock syndrome toxin 1 in Staphylococcus aureus by the polymerase chain reaction. J Clin Microbiol. 1991;29:426–30.PubMedCentralPubMed Johnson WM, Tyler SD, Ewan EP, Ashton FE, Pollard DR, Rozee KR. Detection of genes for enterotoxins, exfoliative toxins, and toxic shock syndrome toxin 1 in Staphylococcus aureus by the polymerase chain reaction. J Clin Microbiol. 1991;29:426–30.PubMedCentralPubMed
59.
Zurück zum Zitat Bunikowski R, Mielke M, Skarabis H, Herz U, Bergmann RL, Wahn U, et al. Prevelance and role of serum IgE antibodies to the Staphylococcus aureus-derived superantigens SEA and SEB in children with atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1999;103:6.CrossRef Bunikowski R, Mielke M, Skarabis H, Herz U, Bergmann RL, Wahn U, et al. Prevelance and role of serum IgE antibodies to the Staphylococcus aureus-derived superantigens SEA and SEB in children with atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1999;103:6.CrossRef
60.
Zurück zum Zitat Bantel H, Sinha B, Domschke W, Peters G, Schulze-Osthoff K, Janicke RU. alpha-Toxin is a mediator of Staphylococcus aureus-induced cell death and activates caspases via the intrinsic death pathway independently of death receptor signaling. J Cell Biol. 2001;155:637–48.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Bantel H, Sinha B, Domschke W, Peters G, Schulze-Osthoff K, Janicke RU. alpha-Toxin is a mediator of Staphylococcus aureus-induced cell death and activates caspases via the intrinsic death pathway independently of death receptor signaling. J Cell Biol. 2001;155:637–48.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
61.
Zurück zum Zitat Walev I, Martin E, Jonas D, Mohamadzadeh M, Muller-Klieser W, Kunz L, et al. Staphylococcal alpha-toxin kills human keratinocytes by permeabilizing the plasma membrane for monovalent ions. Infect Immun. 1993;61:8. Walev I, Martin E, Jonas D, Mohamadzadeh M, Muller-Klieser W, Kunz L, et al. Staphylococcal alpha-toxin kills human keratinocytes by permeabilizing the plasma membrane for monovalent ions. Infect Immun. 1993;61:8.
62.
Zurück zum Zitat Brauweiler AM, Goleva E, Leung DY. Th2 cytokines increase Staphylococcus aureus alpha toxin-induced keratinocyte death through the signal transducer and activator of transcription 6 (STAT6). J Invest Dermatol. 2014;134:2114–21.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Brauweiler AM, Goleva E, Leung DY. Th2 cytokines increase Staphylococcus aureus alpha toxin-induced keratinocyte death through the signal transducer and activator of transcription 6 (STAT6). J Invest Dermatol. 2014;134:2114–21.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
63.
Zurück zum Zitat Hong SW, Choi EB, Min TK, Kim JH, Kim MH, Jeon SG, et al. An important role of alpha-hemolysin in extracellular vesicles on the development of atopic dermatitis induced by Staphylococcus aureus. PLoS One. 2014;9, e100499.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Hong SW, Choi EB, Min TK, Kim JH, Kim MH, Jeon SG, et al. An important role of alpha-hemolysin in extracellular vesicles on the development of atopic dermatitis induced by Staphylococcus aureus. PLoS One. 2014;9, e100499.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
64.
Zurück zum Zitat Ezepchuk YV, Leung DY, Middleton MH, Bina P, Reiser R, Norris DA. Staphylococcal toxins and protein A differentially induce cytotoxicity and release of tumor necrosis factor-alpha from human keratinocytes. J Invest Dermatol. 1996;107:603–9.CrossRefPubMed Ezepchuk YV, Leung DY, Middleton MH, Bina P, Reiser R, Norris DA. Staphylococcal toxins and protein A differentially induce cytotoxicity and release of tumor necrosis factor-alpha from human keratinocytes. J Invest Dermatol. 1996;107:603–9.CrossRefPubMed
65.
Zurück zum Zitat Nakamura Y, Oscherwitz J, Cease KB, Chan SM, Munoz-Planillo R, Hasegawa M, et al. Staphylococcus delta-toxin induces allergic skin disease by activating mast cells. Nature. 2013;503:397–401.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Nakamura Y, Oscherwitz J, Cease KB, Chan SM, Munoz-Planillo R, Hasegawa M, et al. Staphylococcus delta-toxin induces allergic skin disease by activating mast cells. Nature. 2013;503:397–401.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
66.
Zurück zum Zitat Hanakawa Y, Selwood T, Woo D, Lin C, Schechter NM, Stanley JR. Calcium-dependent conformation of desmoglein 1 is required for its cleavage by exfoliative toxin. J Invest Dermatol. 2003;121:383–9.CrossRefPubMed Hanakawa Y, Selwood T, Woo D, Lin C, Schechter NM, Stanley JR. Calcium-dependent conformation of desmoglein 1 is required for its cleavage by exfoliative toxin. J Invest Dermatol. 2003;121:383–9.CrossRefPubMed
67.
Zurück zum Zitat Hirasawa Y, Takai T, Nakamura T, Mitsuishi K, Gunawan H, Suto H, et al. Staphylococcus aureus extracellular protease causes epidermal barrier dysfunction. J Invest Dermatol. 2010;130:614–7.CrossRefPubMed Hirasawa Y, Takai T, Nakamura T, Mitsuishi K, Gunawan H, Suto H, et al. Staphylococcus aureus extracellular protease causes epidermal barrier dysfunction. J Invest Dermatol. 2010;130:614–7.CrossRefPubMed
68.
Zurück zum Zitat Ladhani S. Understanding the mechanism of action of the exfoliative toxins ofStaphylococcus aureus. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol. 2003;39:181–9.CrossRefPubMed Ladhani S. Understanding the mechanism of action of the exfoliative toxins ofStaphylococcus aureus. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol. 2003;39:181–9.CrossRefPubMed
69.
Zurück zum Zitat Syed AK, Reed TJ, Clark KL, Boles BR, Kahlenberg JM. Staphylococcus aureus phenol soluble modulins stimulate the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines from keratinocytes and are required for induction of skin inflammation. Infect Immun. 2015. Syed AK, Reed TJ, Clark KL, Boles BR, Kahlenberg JM. Staphylococcus aureus phenol soluble modulins stimulate the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines from keratinocytes and are required for induction of skin inflammation. Infect Immun. 2015.
70.
Zurück zum Zitat Proft T, Fraser JD. Bacterial superantigens. Clin Exp Immunol. 2003;133:8.CrossRef Proft T, Fraser JD. Bacterial superantigens. Clin Exp Immunol. 2003;133:8.CrossRef
71.
Zurück zum Zitat Hirose A, Ikejima T, Gill DM. Established macrophagelike cell lines synthesize interleukin-1 in response to toxic shock syndrome toxin. Infect Immun. 1985;50:6. Hirose A, Ikejima T, Gill DM. Established macrophagelike cell lines synthesize interleukin-1 in response to toxic shock syndrome toxin. Infect Immun. 1985;50:6.
72.
Zurück zum Zitat Kim KH, Han JH, CHung JH, Cho KH, Eun HC. Role of staphylococcal superantigen in atopic dermatitis: influence on keratinocytes. J Korean Med Sci. 2006;21:9. Kim KH, Han JH, CHung JH, Cho KH, Eun HC. Role of staphylococcal superantigen in atopic dermatitis: influence on keratinocytes. J Korean Med Sci. 2006;21:9.
73.
Zurück zum Zitat Bhardwaj N, Friedman SM, Cole BC, Nisanian AJ. Dendritic cells are potent antigen-presenting cells for microbial superantigens. J Exp Med. 1992;175:7.CrossRef Bhardwaj N, Friedman SM, Cole BC, Nisanian AJ. Dendritic cells are potent antigen-presenting cells for microbial superantigens. J Exp Med. 1992;175:7.CrossRef
74.
Zurück zum Zitat Komatsu N, Saijoh K, Kuk C, Liu AC, Khan S, Shirasaki F, et al. Human tissue kallikrein expression in the stratum corneum and serum of atopic dermatitis patients. Exp Dermatol. 2007;16:513–9.CrossRefPubMed Komatsu N, Saijoh K, Kuk C, Liu AC, Khan S, Shirasaki F, et al. Human tissue kallikrein expression in the stratum corneum and serum of atopic dermatitis patients. Exp Dermatol. 2007;16:513–9.CrossRefPubMed
75.
Zurück zum Zitat Voegeli R, Rawlings AV, Breternitz M, Doppler S, Schreier T, Fluhr JW. Increased stratum corneum serine protease activity in acute eczematous atopic skin. Br J Dermatol. 2009;161:70–7.CrossRefPubMed Voegeli R, Rawlings AV, Breternitz M, Doppler S, Schreier T, Fluhr JW. Increased stratum corneum serine protease activity in acute eczematous atopic skin. Br J Dermatol. 2009;161:70–7.CrossRefPubMed
76.
Zurück zum Zitat Borgono CA, Michael IP, Komatsu N, Jayakumar A, Kapadia R, Clayman GL, et al. A potential role for multiple tissue kallikrein serine proteases in epidermal desquamation. J Biol Chem. 2007;282:3640–52.CrossRefPubMed Borgono CA, Michael IP, Komatsu N, Jayakumar A, Kapadia R, Clayman GL, et al. A potential role for multiple tissue kallikrein serine proteases in epidermal desquamation. J Biol Chem. 2007;282:3640–52.CrossRefPubMed
77.
Zurück zum Zitat Sakabe J, Yamamoto M, Hirakawa S, Motoyama A, Ohta I, Tatsuno K, et al. Kallikrein-related peptidase 5 functions in proteolytic processing of profilaggrin in cultured human keratinocytes. J Biol Chem. 2013;288:17179–89.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Sakabe J, Yamamoto M, Hirakawa S, Motoyama A, Ohta I, Tatsuno K, et al. Kallikrein-related peptidase 5 functions in proteolytic processing of profilaggrin in cultured human keratinocytes. J Biol Chem. 2013;288:17179–89.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
78.
Zurück zum Zitat Stefansson K, Brattsand M, Roosterman D, Kempkes C, Bocheva G, Steinhoff M, et al. Activation of proteinase-activated receptor-2 by human kallikrein-related peptidases. J Invest Dermatol. 2008;128:18–25.CrossRefPubMed Stefansson K, Brattsand M, Roosterman D, Kempkes C, Bocheva G, Steinhoff M, et al. Activation of proteinase-activated receptor-2 by human kallikrein-related peptidases. J Invest Dermatol. 2008;128:18–25.CrossRefPubMed
79.
Zurück zum Zitat Yamasaki K, Schauber J, Coda A, Lin H, Dorschner RA, Schechter NM, et al. Kallikrein-mediated proteolysis regulates the antimicrobial effects of cathelicidins in skin. FASEB J Off Publ Fed Am Soc Exp Biol. 2006;20:2068–80. Yamasaki K, Schauber J, Coda A, Lin H, Dorschner RA, Schechter NM, et al. Kallikrein-mediated proteolysis regulates the antimicrobial effects of cathelicidins in skin. FASEB J Off Publ Fed Am Soc Exp Biol. 2006;20:2068–80.
80.
Zurück zum Zitat Cogen AL, Yamasaki K, Sanchez KM, Dorschner RA, Lai Y, Macleod DT, et al. Selective antimicrobial action is prodived by phenol-soluble modulins derived from staphylococcus epidermidis, a normal resident of the skin. J Investig Dermatol. 2010;130:9.CrossRef Cogen AL, Yamasaki K, Sanchez KM, Dorschner RA, Lai Y, Macleod DT, et al. Selective antimicrobial action is prodived by phenol-soluble modulins derived from staphylococcus epidermidis, a normal resident of the skin. J Investig Dermatol. 2010;130:9.CrossRef
81.
Zurück zum Zitat Wanke I, Steffen H, Christ C, Krismer B, Gotz F, Peschel A, et al. Skin commensals amplify the innate immune response to pathogens by activation of distinct signaling pathways. J Invest Dermatol. 2011;131:382–90.CrossRefPubMed Wanke I, Steffen H, Christ C, Krismer B, Gotz F, Peschel A, et al. Skin commensals amplify the innate immune response to pathogens by activation of distinct signaling pathways. J Invest Dermatol. 2011;131:382–90.CrossRefPubMed
82.
Zurück zum Zitat Iwase T, Uehara Y, Shinji H, Tajima A, Seo H, Takada K, et al. Staphylococcus epidermidis Esp inhibits Staphylococcus aureus biofilm formation and nasal colonization. Nature. 2010;465:346–9.CrossRefPubMed Iwase T, Uehara Y, Shinji H, Tajima A, Seo H, Takada K, et al. Staphylococcus epidermidis Esp inhibits Staphylococcus aureus biofilm formation and nasal colonization. Nature. 2010;465:346–9.CrossRefPubMed
83.
Zurück zum Zitat Kobayashi T, Glatz M, Horiuchi K, Kawasaki H, Akiyama H, Kaplan DH, et al. Dysbiosis and Staphyloccus aureus colonization drives inflammation in atopic dermatitis. Immunity. 2015;42:756–66.CrossRefPubMed Kobayashi T, Glatz M, Horiuchi K, Kawasaki H, Akiyama H, Kaplan DH, et al. Dysbiosis and Staphyloccus aureus colonization drives inflammation in atopic dermatitis. Immunity. 2015;42:756–66.CrossRefPubMed
84.
Zurück zum Zitat Ewing CI, Ashcroft C, Gibbs AC, Jones GA, Connor PJ, David TJ. Flucloxacillin in the treatment of atopic dermatitis. Br J Dermatol. 1998;138:1022–9.CrossRefPubMed Ewing CI, Ashcroft C, Gibbs AC, Jones GA, Connor PJ, David TJ. Flucloxacillin in the treatment of atopic dermatitis. Br J Dermatol. 1998;138:1022–9.CrossRefPubMed
85.
Zurück zum Zitat Lever R, Hadley K, Downey D, Mackie R. Staphylococcal colonization in atopic dermatitis and the effect of topical mupirocin therapy. Br J Dermatol. 1988;119:189–98.CrossRefPubMed Lever R, Hadley K, Downey D, Mackie R. Staphylococcal colonization in atopic dermatitis and the effect of topical mupirocin therapy. Br J Dermatol. 1988;119:189–98.CrossRefPubMed
86.
Zurück zum Zitat Parish LC, Jorizzo JL, Breton JJ, Hirman JW, Scangarella NE, Shawar RM, et al. Topical retapamulin ointment (1%, wt/wt) twice daily for 5 days versus oral cephalexin twice daily for 10 days in the treatment of secondarily infected dermatitis: results of a randomized controlled trial. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2006;55:1003–13.CrossRefPubMed Parish LC, Jorizzo JL, Breton JJ, Hirman JW, Scangarella NE, Shawar RM, et al. Topical retapamulin ointment (1%, wt/wt) twice daily for 5 days versus oral cephalexin twice daily for 10 days in the treatment of secondarily infected dermatitis: results of a randomized controlled trial. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2006;55:1003–13.CrossRefPubMed
87.
Zurück zum Zitat Gilani SJ, Gonzalez M, Hussain I, Finlay AY, Patel GK. Staphylococcus aureus re-colonization in atopic dermatitis: beyond the skin. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2005;30:10–3.CrossRefPubMed Gilani SJ, Gonzalez M, Hussain I, Finlay AY, Patel GK. Staphylococcus aureus re-colonization in atopic dermatitis: beyond the skin. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2005;30:10–3.CrossRefPubMed
88.
Zurück zum Zitat Breuer K, Haussler S, Kapp A, Werfel T. Clinical and Laboratory Investigations Staphylococcus aureus: colonizing features and influence of an antibacterial treatment in adults with atopic dermatitis. Br J Dermatol. 2002;147:7.CrossRef Breuer K, Haussler S, Kapp A, Werfel T. Clinical and Laboratory Investigations Staphylococcus aureus: colonizing features and influence of an antibacterial treatment in adults with atopic dermatitis. Br J Dermatol. 2002;147:7.CrossRef
89.
Zurück zum Zitat Herold BC, Immergluck LC, Maranan MC, Lauderdale DS, Gaskin RE, VBoyle-Vavra S, et al. Community-acquired methicilin-resistant staphylococcus aureus in children with no identified presdisposing risk. JAMA. 1998;279:6.CrossRef Herold BC, Immergluck LC, Maranan MC, Lauderdale DS, Gaskin RE, VBoyle-Vavra S, et al. Community-acquired methicilin-resistant staphylococcus aureus in children with no identified presdisposing risk. JAMA. 1998;279:6.CrossRef
90.
Zurück zum Zitat Barnes TM, Greive KA. Use of bleach baths for the treatment of infected atopic eczema. Aust J Dermatol. 2013;54:251–8.CrossRef Barnes TM, Greive KA. Use of bleach baths for the treatment of infected atopic eczema. Aust J Dermatol. 2013;54:251–8.CrossRef
91.
Zurück zum Zitat Huang JT, Abrams M, Tlougan B, Rademaker A, Paller AS. Treatment of Staphylococcus aureus colonization in atopic dermatitis decreases disease severity. Pediatrics. 2009;123:e808–14.CrossRefPubMed Huang JT, Abrams M, Tlougan B, Rademaker A, Paller AS. Treatment of Staphylococcus aureus colonization in atopic dermatitis decreases disease severity. Pediatrics. 2009;123:e808–14.CrossRefPubMed
92.
Zurück zum Zitat Wong SM, Ng TG, Baba R. Efficacy and safety of sodium hypochlorite (bleach) baths in patients with moderate to severe atopic dermatitis in Malaysia. J Dermatol. 2013;40:874–80.CrossRefPubMed Wong SM, Ng TG, Baba R. Efficacy and safety of sodium hypochlorite (bleach) baths in patients with moderate to severe atopic dermatitis in Malaysia. J Dermatol. 2013;40:874–80.CrossRefPubMed
93.
Zurück zum Zitat Leung TH, Zhang LF, Wang J, Ning S, Knox SJ, Kim SK. Topical hypochlorite ameliorates NF-kappaB-mediated skin diseases in mice. J Clin Invest. 2013;123:5361–70.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Leung TH, Zhang LF, Wang J, Ning S, Knox SJ, Kim SK. Topical hypochlorite ameliorates NF-kappaB-mediated skin diseases in mice. J Clin Invest. 2013;123:5361–70.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
94.
Zurück zum Zitat Zhang LJ, Guerrero-Juarez CF, Hata T, Bapat SP, Ramos R, Plikus MV, et al. Innate immunity. Dermal adipocytes protect against invasive Staphylococcus aureus skin infection. Science. 2015;347:67–71.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Zhang LJ, Guerrero-Juarez CF, Hata T, Bapat SP, Ramos R, Plikus MV, et al. Innate immunity. Dermal adipocytes protect against invasive Staphylococcus aureus skin infection. Science. 2015;347:67–71.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
95.
Zurück zum Zitat Koller DY, Halmerbauer G, Bock A, Engstler G. Action of a silk fabric treated with AEGIS in children with atopic dermatitis: a 3-month trial. Pediatr Allergy Immunol Off Publ Eur Soc Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2007;18:335–8.CrossRef Koller DY, Halmerbauer G, Bock A, Engstler G. Action of a silk fabric treated with AEGIS in children with atopic dermatitis: a 3-month trial. Pediatr Allergy Immunol Off Publ Eur Soc Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2007;18:335–8.CrossRef
96.
Zurück zum Zitat Stinco G, Piccirillo F, Valent F. A randomized double-blind study to investigate the clinical efficacy of adding a non-migrating antimicrobial to a special silk fabric in the treatment of atopic dermatitis. Dermatology. 2008;217:191–5.CrossRefPubMed Stinco G, Piccirillo F, Valent F. A randomized double-blind study to investigate the clinical efficacy of adding a non-migrating antimicrobial to a special silk fabric in the treatment of atopic dermatitis. Dermatology. 2008;217:191–5.CrossRefPubMed
97.
Zurück zum Zitat Aroniadis OC, Brandt LJ. Intestinal microbiota and the efficacy of fecal microbiota transplantation in gastrointestinal disease. Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2014;10:230–7. Aroniadis OC, Brandt LJ. Intestinal microbiota and the efficacy of fecal microbiota transplantation in gastrointestinal disease. Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2014;10:230–7.
Metadaten
Titel
The Role of the Skin Microbiome in Atopic Dermatitis
verfasst von
Michael R. Williams
Richard L. Gallo
Publikationsdatum
01.11.2015
Verlag
Springer US
Erschienen in
Current Allergy and Asthma Reports / Ausgabe 11/2015
Print ISSN: 1529-7322
Elektronische ISSN: 1534-6315
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11882-015-0567-4

Weitere Artikel der Ausgabe 11/2015

Current Allergy and Asthma Reports 11/2015 Zur Ausgabe

Rhinosinusitis (J Mullol, Section Editor)

Antileukotrienes in Upper Airway Inflammatory Diseases

Allergens (RK Bush and JA Woodfolk, Section Editors)

New Insights into Ragweed Pollen Allergens

„Übersichtlicher Wegweiser“: Lauterbachs umstrittener Klinik-Atlas ist online

17.05.2024 Klinik aktuell Nachrichten

Sie sei „ethisch geboten“, meint Gesundheitsminister Karl Lauterbach: mehr Transparenz über die Qualität von Klinikbehandlungen. Um sie abzubilden, lässt er gegen den Widerstand vieler Länder einen virtuellen Klinik-Atlas freischalten.

Betalaktam-Allergie: praxisnahes Vorgehen beim Delabeling

16.05.2024 Pädiatrische Allergologie Nachrichten

Die große Mehrheit der vermeintlichen Penicillinallergien sind keine. Da das „Etikett“ Betalaktam-Allergie oft schon in der Kindheit erworben wird, kann ein frühzeitiges Delabeling lebenslange Vorteile bringen. Ein Team von Pädiaterinnen und Pädiatern aus Kanada stellt vor, wie sie dabei vorgehen.

Klinikreform soll zehntausende Menschenleben retten

15.05.2024 Klinik aktuell Nachrichten

Gesundheitsminister Lauterbach hat die vom Bundeskabinett beschlossene Klinikreform verteidigt. Kritik an den Plänen kommt vom Marburger Bund. Und in den Ländern wird über den Gang zum Vermittlungsausschuss spekuliert.

Eingreifen von Umstehenden rettet vor Erstickungstod

15.05.2024 Fremdkörperaspiration Nachrichten

Wer sich an einem Essensrest verschluckt und um Luft ringt, benötigt vor allem rasche Hilfe. Dass Umstehende nur in jedem zweiten Erstickungsnotfall bereit waren, diese zu leisten, ist das ernüchternde Ergebnis einer Beobachtungsstudie aus Japan. Doch es gibt auch eine gute Nachricht.

Update HNO

Bestellen Sie unseren Fach-Newsletter und bleiben Sie gut informiert – ganz bequem per eMail.