Introduction
Methods
Results
Baseline characteristics | All with stored baseline serum (included in cross-sectional analyses) | All with stored baseline serum and data regarding diabetes status at follow-up (included in prospective analyses) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
European | South Asian |
p values for ethnic difference | European | South Asian |
p values for ethnic difference | |
Number of individuals | 1,279 | 1,007 | 801 | 643 | ||
Age, mean ± SD | 52.9 ± 7.3 | 50.6 ± 7.0 | <0.001 | 52.6 ± 7.2 | 50.6 ± 7.0 | <0.001 |
Fasting glucose (mmol/l) | 5.36 (5.04, 5.69) | 5.46 (5.09, 5.83) | <0.001 | 5.36 (5.03, 5.71) | 5.45 (5.06, 5.82) | <0.001 |
2 h glucose (mmol/l) | 4.85 (4.04, 5.66) | 5.34 (4.50, 6.20) | <0.001 | 4.86 (4.04, 5.72) | 5.27 (4.45, 6.08) | <0.001 |
Fasting insulin (pmol/l) | 50.00 (33.34, 72.23) | 69.80 (47.92, 98.62) | <0.001 | 51.39 (34.03, 73.62) | 69.10 (47.92, 98.62) | <0.001 |
2 h insulin (pmol/l) | 134.04 (79.87, 234.05) | 274.67 (158.35, 504.90) | <0.001 | 141.68 (33.34, 235.44) | 275.37 (159.74, 497.26) | <0.001 |
HDL-cholesterol (mmol/l) |
n = 1,272 1.24 (1.05, 1.48) |
n = 1,000 1.15 (0.98, 1.35) | <0.001 |
n = 795 1.24 (1.06, 1.48) |
n = 640 1.15 (0.99, 1.37) | <0.001 |
Triacylglycerols (mmol/l) | 1.43 (1.02, 2.09) | 1.71 (1.15, 2.51) | <0.001 | 1.36 (0.99, 2.0) | 1.60 (1.09, 2.31) | <0.001 |
Serum creatinine (μmol/l) | 60.37 (54.60, 67.24) | 57.47 (51.43, 64.03) | <0.001 | 60.79 (55.0, 67.79) | 57.47 (51.78, 63.15) | <0.001 |
HOMA-IR | 0.8 (0.5, 1.2) | 1.1 (0.8, 1.6) | <0.001 | 0.8 (0.6, 1.2) | 1.1 (0.8, 1.6) | <0.001 |
Matsuda-IR | 0.20 (0.13, 0.32) | 0.35 (0.22, 0.58) | <0.001 | 0.21 (0.13, 0.33) | 0.35 (0.22, 0.57) | <0.001 |
Waist circumference (cm) | 90.9 (84.5, 97.7) | 92.1 (86.1, 98.5) | 0.02 | 90.6 (84.7, 97.5) | 91.5 (85.7, 97.6) | 0.06 |
WHR | 0.94 (0.90, 0.98) | 0.98 (0.93, 1.02) | <0.001 | 0.94 (0.90, 0.98) | 0.98 (0.93, 1.02) | <0.001 |
Truncal skinfold thickness (cm) | 3.7 (2.9, 4.7) | 4.5 (3.7, 5.5) | <0.001 | 3.7 (2.9, 4.7) | 4.5 (3.7, 5.7) | <0.001 |
BMI (kg/m2) | 25.65 (23.68, 27.96) | 25.46 (23.50, 27.53) | 0.03 | 25.63 (23.69, 27.78) | 25.28 (23.30, 27.23) | 0.05 |
Systolic BP (mmHg) | 121 (111, 132) | 122 (112, 133) | 0.04 | 119 (110, 132) | 121 (112, 133) | 0.02 |
Treated hypertension | 103 (8) | 117 (12) | 0.004 | 63 (8) | 81 (13) | 0.003 |
Smoking, never/ex/current (%) | 26/41/33 | 74/9/16 | <0.001 | 28/40/32 | 74/10/16 | <0.001 |
Alcohol (units per week) |
n = 1,244 11 (3, 23) |
n = 969 3 (0, 15) | <0.001 |
n = 774 12 (3, 24) |
n = 619 3 (0, 14) | <0.001 |
Meat and fish consumption during previous 7 days, quartiles of frequency, lowest to highest (%) | 4/15/40/41 | 35/26/25/13 | <0.0001 | 3/14/40/42 | 36/26/24/15 | <0.0001 |
Dairy product consumption during previous 7 days, none/1 day/2–3 days/most days (%) | 2/4/11/83 | 7/8/19/66 | <0.0001 | 2/4/11/83 | 6/6/20/67 | <0.0001 |
Green vegetable consumption during previous 7 days, none/1 day/2–3 days/most days (%) | 7/7/32/54 | 4/8/35/53 | 0.017 | 6/7/31/56 | 4/8/36/51 | 0.057 |
Physical activity (kJ × 103/week) | 11 (7, 16) | 9 (5, 13) | <0.001 | 11 (7, 16) | 9 (5, 13) | <0.001 |
Education (years) | 10 (9, 11) | 12 (10, 15) | <0.001 | 10 (9, 11) | 12 (10, 15) | <0.001 |
Amino acids (mmol/l) | All with stored baseline serum (included in cross-sectional analyses) | All with stored baseline serum and data regarding diabetes status at follow-up (included in prospective analyses) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Baseline characteristics | European | South Asian |
p values for ethnic difference | European | South Asian |
p values for ethnic difference |
Number | 1,279 | 1,007 | 801 | 643 | ||
Isoleucine | 0.057 (0.050, 0.066) | 0.060 (0.052, 0.068) | <0.0001 | 0.058 (0.050, 0.066) | 0.060 (0.052, 0.068) | 0.002 |
Leucine | 0.091 (0.080, 0.11) | 0.093 (0.083, 0.11) | 0.17 | 0.092 (0.081, 0.11) | 0.092 (0.083, 0.10) | 0.8 |
Valine | 0.179 (0.158, 0.202) | 0.178 (0.156, 0.199) | 0.17 | 0.180 (0.158, 0.204) | 0.176 (0.155, 0.198) | 0.017 |
Phenylalanine | 0.092 (0.084, 0.10) | 0.094 (0.086, 0.10) | 0.019 | 0.092 (0.084, 0.10) | 0.094 (0.085, 0.10) | 0.12 |
Tyrosine | 0.054 (0.048, 0.061) | 0.060 (0.053, 0.067) | <0.0001 | 0.054 (0.048, 0.061) | 0.059 (0.052, 0.067) | <0.0001 |
Isoleucine, phenylalanine, tyrosine combined | 0.205 (0.186, 0.2228) | 0.213 (0.197, 0.234) | <0.0001 | 0.205 (0.186, 0.228) | 0.213 (0.197, 0.233) | <0.0001 |
Alanine | 0.326 (0.290, 0.365) | 0.335 (0.301, 0.375) | <0.0001 | 0.328 (0.290, 0.367) | 0.335 (0.302, 0.374) | 0.001 |
Glutamine | 0.384 (0.257, 0.448) | 0.410 (0.309, 0.471) | <0.0001 | 0.385 (0.262, 0.450) | 0.415 (0.317, 0.473) | <0.0001 |
Glycine |
n = 1,267 0.288 (0.262, 0.318) |
n = 998 0.282 (0.256, 0.311) | 0.006 |
n = 794 0.287 (0.262, 0.316) |
n = 638 0.282 (0.257, 0.312) | 0.10 |
Histidine | 0.077 (0.069, 0.088) | 0.078 (0.070, 0.089) | 0.3 | 0.077 (0.068, 0.088) | 0.078 (0.070, 0.090) | 0.14 |
Spearman’s ρ
a
| European men (n = 1,279) South Asian men (n = 1,007) | Fasting glucose | 2 h glucose | Fasting insulin | 2 h insulin | HOMA-IR | Matsuda-IR | WHR | Waist circumference | BMI | Truncal skinfold thickness |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Isoleucine | European men | 0.16 | 0.12 | 0.35 | 0.28 | 0.35 | 0.34 | 0.30 | 0.34 | 0.31 | 0.32 |
South Asian men | 0.13 | 0.13 | 0.34 | 0.32 | 0.34 | 0.36 | 0.21b
| 0.25b
| 0.23b
| 0.30 | |
Leucine | European men | 0.18 | 0.10 | 0.30 | 0.20 | 0.31 | 0.27 | 0.23 | 0.27 | 0.27 | 0.29 |
South Asian men | 0.14 | 0.07 | 0.26 | 0.21 | 0.26 | 0.25 | 0.14b
| 0.19b
| 0.18b
| 0.25 | |
Valine | European men | 0.18 | 0.14 | 0.32 | 0.23 | 0.33 | 0.30 | 0.23 | 0.28 | 0.29 | 0.31 |
South Asian men | 0.15 | 0.12 | 0.26 | 0.27 | 0.27 | 0.29 | 0.13b
| 0.19b
| 0.22 | 0.29 | |
Phenylalanine | European men | 0.19 | 0.13 | 0.24 | 0.18 | 0.25 | 0.23 | 0.26 | 0.25 | 0.22 | 0.21 |
South Asian men | 0.09 | 0.11 | 0.21 | 0.18 | 0.21 | 0.22 | 0.22 | 0.22 | 0.15 | 0.20 | |
Tyrosine | European men | 0.22 | 0.11 | 0.36 | 0.26 | 0.36 | 0.33 | 0.32 | 0.35 | 0.34 | 0.31 |
South Asian men | 0.23 | 0.14 | 0.29 | 0.24 | 0.30 | 0.30 | 0.30 | 0.35 | 0.30 | 0.27 | |
Alanine | European men | 0.27 | 0.12 | 0.34 | 0.23 | 0.35 | 0.31 | 0.20 | 0.24 | 0.23 | 0.22 |
South Asian men | 0.24 | 0.15 | 0.27 | 0.20 | 0.29 | 0.27 | 0.17 | 0.16b
| 0.17 | 0.23 | |
Glutamine | European men | −0.11 | −0.09 | −0.18 | −0.07 | −0.18 | −0.14 | −0.11 | −0.12 | −0.12 | −0.16 |
South Asian men | −0.07 | −0.03a
| −0.17 | −0.04a
| −0.17 | −0.10 | −0.08 | −0.08 | −0.07 | −0.15 | |
Glycine | European men (n = 1,267) | 0.04a
| −0.0a
| −0.07 | −0.10 | −0.05 | −0.09 | −0.09 | −0.10 | −0.11 | −0.05 |
South Asian men (n = 998) | 0.03a
| 0.003a
| −0.06a
| −0.09 | −0.06a
| −0.08 | −0.08 | −0.11 | −0.15 | −0.01a
| |
Histidine | European men | 0.08 | 0.08 | 0.11 | 0.04a
| 0.10 | 0.09 | 0.03a
| 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.14 |
South Asian men | 0.07a
| 0.03a
| 0.04a
| 0.01a
| 0.04a
| 0.03a
| 0.01a
| 0.02a
| 0.02a
| 0.16 |
OR per SD log-transformed AA concentration | European men |
p values | South Asian men |
p values |
p values for interaction ethnicity × AA | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Isoleucine | Model 1 | 1.48 (1.20, 1.83) | 3 × 10−4
| 1.58 (1.30, 1.93) | 5 × 10−6
| 0.7 |
Model 2 | 1.27 (1.02, 1.58) | 0.032 | 1.34 (1.10, 1.65) | 0.004 | 0.6 | |
Model 3 | 1.09 (0.94, 1.00) | 0.5 | 1.22 (0.98, 1.51) | 0.069 | 0.7 | |
Model 4 | 1.09 (0.87, 1.38) | 0.4 | 1.19 (0.95, 1.48) | 0.13 | 0.6 | |
Model 5 | 1.21 (0.97, 1.51) | 0.089 | 1.42 (1.16, 1.75) | 0.001 | 0.3 | |
Leucine | Model 1 | 1.30 (1.10, 1.55) | 0.003 | 1.50 (1.23, 1.82) | 6 × 10−5
| 0.3 |
Model 2 | 1.19 (0.99, 1.43) | 0.071 | 1.34 (1.10, 1.65) | 0.004 | 0.4 | |
Model 3 | 1.09 (0.88, 1.34) | 0.4 | 1.31 (1.06, 1.62) | 0.014 | 0.2 | |
Model 4 | 1.10 (0.89, 1.35) | 0.4 | 1.22 (0.98, 1.52) | 0.074 | 0.3 | |
Model 5 | 1.11 (0.92, 1.35) | 0.3 | 1.36 (1.11, 1.68) | 0.004 | 0.17 | |
Valine | Model 1 | 1.29 (1.06, 1.58) | 0.013 | 1.53 (1.26, 1.84) | 1 × 10−5
| 0.2 |
Model 2 | 1.12 (0.90, 1.38) | 0.3 | 1.35 (1.11, 1.64) | 0.003 | 0.2 | |
Model 3 | 1.02 (0.81, 1.28) | 0.9 | 1.24 (1.01, 1.54) | 0.044 | 0.3 | |
Model 4 | 1.00 (0.80, 1.27) | 0.9 | 1.24 (1.00, 1.54) | 0.052 | 0.3 | |
Model 5 | 1.04 (0.84, 1.29) | 0.7 | 1.32 (1.08, 1.62) | 0.007 | 0.14 | |
Phenylalanine | Model 1 | 1.13 (0.93, 1.37) | 0.2 | 1.36 (1.12, 1.64) | 0.002 | 0.19 |
Model 2 | 1.00 (0.82, 1.22) | 1.0 | 1.19 (0.98, 1.45) | 0.076 | 0.2 | |
Model 3 | 0.91 (0.74, 1.11) | 0.4 | 1.12 (0.91, 1.37) | 0.3 | 0.2 | |
Model 4 | 0.91 (0.74, 1.12) | 0.4 | 1.08 (0.88, 1.33) | 0.5 | 0.2 | |
Model 5 | 0.97 (0.80, 1.18) | 0.8 | 1.29 (1.06, 1.57) | 0.011 | 0.054 | |
Tyrosine | Model 1 | 1.44 (1.17, 1.76) | 5 × 10−4
| 1.92 (1.57, 2.35) | 3 × 10−10
| 0.049 |
Model 2 | 1.22 (0.98, 1.51) | 0.071 | 1.66 (1.33, 2.03) | 5 × 10−6
| 0.053 | |
Model 3 | 1.07 (0.85, 1.35) | 0.6 | 1.55 (1.24, 1.93) | 1 × 10−4
| 0.038 | |
Model 4 | 1.10 (0.87, 1.39) | 0.4 | 1.47 (1.17, 1.85) | 0.001 | 0.045 | |
Model 5 | 1.11 (0.90, 1.39) | 0.3 | 1.56 (1.26, 1.93) | 5 × 10−5
| 0.047 | |
Alanine | Model 1 | 1.27 (1.03, 1.55) | 0.022 | 1.45 (1.20, 1.75) | 1 × 10−4
| 0.3 |
Model 2 | 1.13 (0.91, 1.39) | 0.3 | 1.31 (1.08, 1.59) | 0.005 | 0.3 | |
Model 3 | 1.06 (0.85, 1.33) | 0.6 | 1.21 (0.99, 1.49) | 0.057 | 0.5 | |
Model 4 | 1.12 (0.89, 1.40) | 0.3 | 1.15 (0.94, 1.42) | 0.17 | 0.8 | |
Model 5 | 1.03 (0.84, 1.28) | 0.8 | 1.25 (1.03, 1.51) | 0.025 | 0.2 | |
Glutamine | Model 1 | 0.91 (0.76, 1.09) | 0.3 | 0.82 (0.70, 0.97) | 0.022 | 0.4 |
Model 2 | 0.96 (0.79, 1.16) | 0.6 | 0.86 (0.73, 1.03) | 0.10 | 0.4 | |
Model 3 | 0.98 (0.80, 1.19) | 0.8 | 0.85 (0.71, 1.03) | 0.091 | 0.2 | |
Model 4 | 0.94 (0.77, 1.15) | 0.5 | 0.94 (0.77, 1.14) | 0.5 | 0.4 | |
Model 5 | 0.94 (0.77, 1.15) | 0.6 | 0.88 (0.73, 1.05) | 0.15 | 0.6 | |
Glycine | Model 1 | 0.77 (0.63, 0.93) | 0.007 | 0.95 (0.80, 1.12) | 0.5 | 0.10 |
Model 2 | 0.78 (0.64, 0.96) | 0.016 | 0.98 (0.82, 1.17) | 0.8 | 0.11 | |
Model 3 | 0.75 (0.61, 0.93) | 0.010 | 0.99 (0.82, 1.20) | 0.9 | 0.047 | |
Model 4 | 0.76 (0.61, 0.94) | 0.011 | 0.98 (0.81, 1.19) | 0.8 | 0.058 | |
Model 5 | 0.78 (0.64, 0.96) | 0.019 | 0.96 (0.80, 1.15) | 0.7 | 0.13 | |
Histidine | Model 1 | 0.98 (0.82, 1.18) | 0.8 | 1.19 (0.99, 1.43) | 0.062 | 0.15 |
Model 2 | 0.94 (0.78, 1.15) | 0.6 | 1.16 (0.96, 1.41) | 0.13 | 0.15 | |
Model 3 | 0.93 (0.75, 1.15) | 0.5 | 1.20 (0.98, 1.46) | 0.084 | 0.077 | |
Model 4 | 0.93 (0.75, 1.15) | 0.6 | 1.15 (0.93, 1.42) | 0.2 | 0.10 | |
Model 5 | 0.92 (0.75, 1.12) | 0.4 | 1.13 (0.93, 1.38) | 0.2 | 0.14 | |
Isoleucine, phenylalanine, tyrosine | Model 1 | 1.39 (1.14, 1.69) | 0.001 | 1.85 (1.50, 2.29) | 1 × 10−8
| 0.051 |
Model 2 | 1.18 (0.95, 1.46) | 0.13 | 1.54 (1.23, 1.92) | 1 × 10−4
| 0.083 | |
Model 3 | 1.02 (0.81, 1.27) | 0.9 | 1.39 (1.10, 1.75) | 0.001 | 0.096 | |
Model 4 | 1.03 (0.82, 1.29) | 0.8 | 1.32 (1.04, 1.68) | 0.022 | 0.10 | |
Model 5 | 1.10 (0.89, 1.36) | 0.4 | 1.57 (1.26, 1.96) | 5 × 10−5
| 0.029 | |
Branched chain + aromatic AAs | Model 1 | 1.36 (1.13, 1.65) | 0.001 | 1.79 (1.45, 2.20) | 5 × 10−8
| 0.061 |
Model 2 | 1.18 (0.96, 1.45) | 0.11 | 1.51 (1.21, 1.87) | 1 × 10−5
| 0.10 | |
Model 3 | 1.04 (0.83, 1.29) | 0.8 | 1.38 (1.10, 1.73) | 0.006 | 0.12 | |
Model 4 | 1.05 (0.84, 1.30) | 0.7 | 1.31 (1.04, 1.66) | 0.023 | 0.13 | |
Model 5 | 1.10 (0.89, 1.35) | 0.4 | 1.52 (1.22, 1.89) | 2 × 10−4
| 0.040 |