In this study interstitial matrix remodeling was explored in β1-adrenoceptor transgenic mice [
11]. In β1TG, an increase in cardiac function is followed by ventricular hypertrophy at 5 months of age [
11]. Transition from a compensated LV hypertrophic state to LV dilatation and dysfunction occurred in β1TG mice at the age of 5 to 9 months and is most pronounced in β1TG mice at the age of 12 months [
32]. As shown by expression analyses (histology, real-time PCR, immunoblotting) and proteinase activity assays (zymography), β1-adrenoceptor transgenic mice (β1TG) developed progressive interstitial fibrosis that preceded systolic functional decline [
11,
12] as studied earlier. Fibrosis was most pronounced at the age of 12 months.
Engelhardt et al. have shown an impairment of myocardial contractility associated with impaired Ca
2+-handling in β1TG mice [
11,
12]. Badenhorst et al. recently suggested that chronic sympathetic activation significantly contributes to progression from compensated left ventricular hypertrophy to cardiac dysfunction through deleterious cardiac matrix remodeling [
1,
2]. Our data suggest that β-adrenergic overactivity by β1-adrenergic receptor overexpression is accompanied by interstitial matrix remodeling and turnover by induction of MMP/TIMP activity in parallel to cardiac phenotype changes. Increased gene expression of proMMP-2 and MT1-MMP (MMP-14) contributes to enhanced protein expression and activation of 72 KDa gelatinase (MMP-2). Gelatinase activity of MMP-2 is associated with interstitial fibrosis and ventricular dilatation. MMP-2 activity might be not contradictory to increased interstitial fibrosis because MMP-2 has been shown to degrade non triple-helical collagens like gelatins and fibronectin [
29] which may promote cleavage of fibronectin from β1-integrins located at cardiomyocyte-matrix adhesions. Indeed, β1-integrin downstream signaling (integrin-linked kinase, ILK) was significantly impaired in failing β1-adrenoceptor transgenic mice.
In β1TG pro-collagen type-I and -III mRNA and interstitial collagen protein expression was progressively increased from four fold at 5 months and finally to 17-fold at 12 months compared to 3 months of age. In β1TG at 5 months of age with compensated cardiac hypertrophy, we observed an increased deposition of type-I and -III collagen fibers (polarization microscopy) surrounding the cardiomyocytes. Conversely, in the β1TG group at 12 months of age asymmetrical distribution of the collagen fibers with interruption of the collagen network structure was shown in Sirius red stained sections of the left ventricle. The turnover of collagens is regulated by proteolytic matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) activity and their endogenous tissue inhibitors (TIMPs). Progressive interstitial fibrosis was accompanied by increased expression levels of proMMP-2, MMP-2, TIMP- 2, the membrane bound MT1-MMP (MMP-14), and the collagen type I degrading enzymes MMP-1 and MMP- 13. Increased MMP activity has been indicated in both animal and human studies of heart failure with ventricular dilatation and fibrosis [
19,
21,
26,
27]. In particular, these studies observed MMP/TIMP profiles which favor extracellular matrix (ECM) degradation. Since in these models increased myocardial fibrosis was observed, these data and those reported herein provide evidence for a dysbalance between formation and degradation of interstitial fibrous tissue.
In β1TG mice with hypertrophy, increased left ventricular protein expression of pro-MMP isoforms, such as the collagenases (MMP-1, MMP-13), the gelatinase proMMP-2 and the membrane bound MT1-MMP, preceded the development of ventricular dilatation. Compensated hypertrophy was associated with increased myocardial TIMP-1 and TIMP-2 levels, which would imply reduced MMP collagenase activity. This is in agreement with the concept that diminished myocardial MMP collagenase activity can facilitate collagen accumulation in developing hypertrophy [
20,
21]. TIMP-1 protein expression also increased with age in the WT group but protein enhancement was more pronounced in β1TG mice. These data suggest a role for the control of cardiac MMP-1 and -13 proteolytic activity by TIMP- 1. The fact that protein expression of the collagenases MMP-1 and MMP-13 was accompanied by elevated TIMP-1 levels is compatible with results in chronic pressure- overload induced hypertrophy but contrasts to models with acute pressure-overload showing an increase in MMP activity [
22].
β1TG mice developed dilatation and heart failure at the age of 12 months [
11]. Total collagenase (MMP-1, MMP-13) protein expression decreased but membrane bound MT1-MMP (MMP-14), TIMP-2 protein expression and MMP-2 gelatinase activity significantly increased in β1TG mice at 5 and further at 12 months of age. We observed a weak signal of zymographic MMP-2 activity in some of the β1TG mice at 5 months of age preceding transition to ventricular dilatation. Gelatinolytic MMP-2 activity, measured by gelatin zymography, increased up to 3.6-fold in β1TG with decompensated heart failure symptoms at the age of 12 months. Our data support the hypothesis that activation of the gelatinase MMP-2 accompanies left ventricular remodeling and dilatation. TIMP-2 is known as an inhibitor of MMP-2 activity but also participates in proMMP-2 activation, involving binding of proMMP-2 to a membrane-bound MT1-MMP/TIMP-2 receptor complex [
15,
33]. MT1- MMP has been localized to the cell membrane and in proximity to the ECM-binding integrins [
24].α2β1 integrin is the major collagen type I receptor and located in focal adhesions in cardiomyocyte and fibroblast membranes [
9].Myocardial fibrillar collagens, such as collagen types I and III, are essential for maintaining alignment of the myofibrils within the myocytes through a collagen-integrin-cytoskeletal myofibril relation [
6,
17,
24]. Integrin signaling is important in the maintenance of normal myocardial structure and function [
24]. MMP-2 activity may promote cleavage of fibronectin from β1-integrins located at cardiomyocyte-matrix adhesions. Indeed, β1-integrin activity measured by downstream signaling (integrin-linked kinase, ILK) was significantly impaired in failing β1-adrenoceptor transgenic mice at the age of 12 months. Since ILK is involved in cellular regulation of cell survival and proliferation [
10,
32], disruption of cell-matrix adhesions could be involved in cardiomyocyte slippage, replacement fibrosis and finally ventricular dilatation. Sakata and coworkers [
25] observed enhanced total MMP protein expression and activity in Dahl salt-sensitive rats (26 weeks) with LV dilatation and systolic dysfunction compared to earlier stages providing evidence that gelatinolytic activity precedes LV dilatation. Iwanaga et al. [
16] showed, in Dahl salt-sensitive rats with compensated left ventricular hypertrophy (11 weeks), no changes in the hypertrophy stage, but increased MMP-2 mRNA, protein level and activity as well as TIMP-2 protein and mRNA levels after development of dilatation and dysfunction. In agreement targeted deletion of the MMP-2 gene reduced LV rupture and late remodeling in mice after myocardial infarction [
14]. These findings supported the data of the present study. Spinale et al. [
28] as well as Woodiwiss et al. [
31] found that, irrespective of changes in myocardial collagen concentrations, a decrease in collagen cross-linking paralleled left ventricular dilatation in a rat model with pressure-overload and heart failure and in rats with left ventricular dilatation induced by a seven month-lasting enoceptor stimulation with isoproterenol. A potential role of β-adrenoceptor stimulation beyond replacement fibrosis has been provided by Coker et al. [
8]. They stimulated myocytes with isoproterenol and demonstrated increased MMP-2 content and activity as well as increasedMT1-MMP expression. A positive correlation between noradrenaline and MMP-2 in patients with severe congestive heart failure and in vitro in human cardiac fibroblasts has been recently shown by Banfi et al. [
4]. These data support the link between neurohormonal stimulation and collagen turnover. In conclusion the presented data provide evidence that gelatinase activity of MMP-2 accompanies replacement fibrosis and ventricular dilatation. MMP-2 activity may promote cleavage of fibronectin from β1-integrins located at cardiomyocyte-matrix adhesions in failing β1TG. The knowledge of the selective induction of MMPs within the myocardium might have particular relevance in future therapeutic approaches to prevent progression of chronic heart failure disease.