Tissue processing
Animals were first deeply anesthetized with a mixture of ketamine (20 mg/kg, i.m.) and xylazine (4 mg/kg, i.m.), along with acepromazine (0.5 mg/kg, i.m.). They were then perfused transcardially with 200 mL of ice-cold sodium phosphate-buffered saline (PBS, 50 mM; pH 7.4), followed by 500 mL of 3.0 % acrolein in phosphate buffer (PB, 50 mM; pH 7.4) and by 1 L of cold 4 % paraformaldehyde (PFA). Brains were rapidly dissected out, postfixed by immersion in 4 % PFA for 1 h at 4 °C and cut with a vibratome (Leica) into 50 µm-thick sections collected in PBS (100 mM; pH 7.4). Brains were cut along the coronal plane, except for the left hemisphere of one monkey that was cut along the sagittal plane and the left hemisphere of another monkey that was cryoprotected in a 30 % sucrose solution for 3 days and cut in 50 µm-thick horizontal sections using a freezing microtome. Sagittal, horizontal and coronal sections were used to describe the ascending ACh pathways from the PPN, whereas stereological and electron microscopical analyses were exclusively conducted on coronal sections.
Immunohistochemistry
The polyclonal antibody against the rate-limiting enzyme for ACh synthesis, choline acetyltransferase (ChAT; catalog no. AB144P, EMD Millipore Corporation, Billerica, MA, USA), was raised in goat against the human placental enzyme. It was affinity-purified and characterized by western blot in brain tissue. The density and arrangement of axonal arborizations visualized on brain sections stained with this particular antibody was typical of ACh neurons, as it corresponds exactly to the staining features obtained with other anti-ChAT sera (Contant et al.
1996; Mechawar et al.
2000). Furthermore, the immunostaining pattern of cell bodies obtained with this antibody also perfectly matched the distribution of neurons expressing ChAT mRNA, as detected by in situ hybridization (Wang and Morales
2009). The processing of monkey brain tissue without primary or secondary antibody completely abolishes the immunostaining.
In preparation for light microscopy, free-floating brain sections from all 6 monkeys were sequentially incubated at room temperature (RT), unless stated otherwise, in (1) a solution of 0.3 % hydrogen peroxide and 50 % ethanol for 30 min to eliminate endogenous peroxidase activity, (2) a solution of 0.5 % NaBH4 diluted in PBS (30 min), both followed by several rinses in PBS, (3) a blocking solution of PBS, containing 2 % normal rabbit serum and 2 % Triton X-100 (1 h), (4) the same solution to which a 1:25 dilution of goat polyclonal antibody against ChAT was added (48 h), followed by several rinses in PBS, and (5) the same blocking solution containing a 1:1,000 dilution of biotinylated rabbit anti-goat antibody (catalog no. BA5000, Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, CA, USA; 1 h). After rinses in PBS, sections were incubated for 1 h in avidin–biotin-peroxidase complex (catalog no. PK-4000, Vector Laboratories) diluted 1:100 in PBS. They were then rinsed twice in PBS and once in Tris–saline buffer (TBS; 50 mM, pH 7.4), and the bound peroxidase was revealed by incubating the sections for 2 min in a 0.05 % solution of 3,3′diaminobenzidine (catalog no. D5637; Sigma, St-Louis, MO, USA) in TBS to which 0.005 % H2O2 was added. Several rinses in TBS followed by PB stopped the reaction, and sections were mounted on gelatin-coated slides, air-dried overnight, dehydrated in graded alcohol series, cleared in toluene and coverslipped with Permount.
In preparation for electron microscopy, sections from four of the six monkeys were incubated with the same primary and secondary antibodies as described above, but without Triton X-100, which was replaced by 0.5 % cold fish gelatin. These sections did not undergo the first step in peroxide-ethanol. Primary antibody was incubated 24 h at RT and then 24 h at 4 °C. Secondary antibody was diluted 1:500 in blocking solution and incubated for 1.5 h. Sections were then osmicated, dehydrated in ethanol and propylene oxide and flat-embedded in Durcupan (catalog no. 44611-14; Fluka, Buchs, Switzerland) to be processed and examined as described below.
In preparation for immunofluorescence, 4 coronal sections from one monkey were processed for ChAT immunohistochemistry at the level of the anterior, mid-portion and posterior GPi and at the mid portion of the PPN. After several washes in PBS, free-floating sections were incubated in a solution of 0.5 % NaBH4 diluted in PBS followed by several rinses in PBS. They were then incubated according to the sequence outlined above for light microscopy preparation, except that the biotinylated secondary antibody was incubated for 2 h, followed by rinses in PBS and an incubation in a 1: 200 solution of Alexa Fluor 488 streptavidin (catalogue no. S11223; Molecular Probes, Life Technologies Corporation, Burlington, ON, Canada) diluted in blocking solution for 2 h. Sections were rinsed in PBS and mounted on gelatin-coated slides, air-dried overnight and processed with autofluorescence eliminator reagent (catalog no. 2160, Millipore, Temecula, CA, USA), according to instructions from the manufacturer. They were then coverslipped with DAKO fluorescent mounting medium (catalog no. S3023, Dako North America, Carpinteria, CA, USA).
Section intervals used for the description of ACh ascending pathways
The trajectories of the ACh ascending pathways originating from the PPN were visualized on sagittal, horizontal and coronal sections that were processed for ChAT immunostaining. To provide a faithful description of the initial trajectory, selected sections through the brainstem were taken at intervals of 150 µm, whereas other sections, used to study the morphological characteristics and distribution patterns of ACh axon varicosities and neuronal somata, were separated by 300 µm. Pathways were delineated with the help of a light microscope equipped with a 20×/0.70 objective. Sections processed for ChAT immunofluorescence, as described above, were imaged with a LSM 700 confocal microscope (Zeiss Canada) equipped with four solid-state lasers and an EC Plan neofluar 20×/0.5 objective.
Quantitative assessment of the density of ChAT-immunoreactive axon terminals
The stereological procedures used in the present study have been described in details elsewhere (Eid et al.
2013). In brief, the number of ChAT-immunoreactive axon terminals in the GPi and GPe was assessed on coronal sections examined at the light microscopic level using an unbiased stereological approach and the StereoInvestigator software (v.10.54, MicroBrightField, Colchester, VT, USA). Eight equally spaced transverse sections were selected across the entire rostrocaudal extent of both pallidal segments in each of the six monkeys. The GPi being smaller than the GPe, the interval between each section had to be smaller (300 µm) for the GPi than for the GPe (600 µm) in order to obtain 8 equally spaced sections for each pallidal segment. The first section was always selected at random and other sections were chosen according to the interval mentioned above. Each pallidal segment was then divided into eight sectors, enabling a more precise description of the regional distribution of ChAT positive (+) axon varicosities throughout the GPi and GPe. To do so, the contour of the GPi and GPe was first outlined at a low magnification on each coronal section. Then, two lines, forming an acute angle, were traced; one passing through the dorsal aspect of the lenticular nucleus and the other through its ventral aspect. A third line was traced as a bisector, dividing each pallidal segment into ventral and dorsal sectors. Another line, perpendicular to and centered on the bisector was traced to delineate four sectors on each pallidal segment and each brain section. The anteroposterior axis was then divided in two by considering the first four transverse sections as representative of anterior sectors and the last four of posterior sectors (see Eid et al.
2013 for details). The sampling of ChAT+ axon varicosities began by randomly placing a grid formed by 400 × 400 µm squares over each section. At each intersection of the grid that fell into the sector, a 30 × 30 µm counting frame was drawn and examined with a 100×/1.30 oil-immersion objective. ChAT+ axon varicosities appear under light microscope as round or ovoid axonal dilation measuring >0.25 µm in transverse diameter. Varicosities were counted whenever one such profile was encountered inside the counting frame, did not touch the exclusion line and came into focus inside a 10 µm-thick optical disector centered in the section. For each counting frame, the thickness of the mounted tissue was measured, yielding to mean values of 20.6 ± 0.7 µm in the GPi and 20.8 ± 0.8 µm in the GPe, providing a lower and upper guard zone of approximately 5 µm. An average of 232 ± 69 axon varicosities were counted in each sector of the GPi and GPe, yielding to coefficients of error (Gunderson,
m = 1 and second Schmitz-Hof) ranging between 0.03 and 0.18. For each sector, the density of ChAT innervation was expressed in 10
6 axon varicosities per mm
3 of tissue, using the total number of axon varicosities calculated by the optical disector and the volume of the sector estimated by Cavalieri’s method. The density of ChAT+ axon varicosities in the entire GPi and GPe was estimated by using the same approach. Overall, the stereological procedures used in the present study, including section intervals, grids and counting frame sizes, were exactly the same as those used in our previous investigation of the serotonin (5-HT) innervation of the monkey pallidum (Eid et al.
2013), allowing a direct comparison between the 5-HT and ACh pallidal innervations.
Ultrastructural features of ChAT-immunoreactive axon varicosities
For each of the four monkeys that were used for electron microscopy, quadrangular pieces were cut in the center of GPi and GPe from two flat-embedded ChAT-immunostained sections taken at the mid anteroposterior level of the pallidum (AP = 10 mm, according to the stereotaxic atlas of Emmers and Akert (
1962)). The quadrangular pieces were glued on the tip of a resin block and cut with an ultramicrotome (Leica EM UC7) in ultrathin sections (~80 nm), which were collected on bare 150-mesh copper grids and stained with lead citrate. Grids were examined with a
Tecnai 12 transmission electron microscope (100 kV; Philips Electronic) equipped with an integrated Mega-View II digital camera (SIS, Germany). Profiles of varicosities were identified by their diameter >0.25 µm and their content in synaptic vesicles, often associated with one or more mitochondria. The ChAT+ axon varicosities were randomly sampled at a working magnification of 11,500× by taking a picture every time such profile was encountered, until 40 or more pictures were available for analysis in each pallidal segment of each animal.
The public domain
ImageJ processing software (NIH; v.1.45) was used for the analysis of ChAT+ and unlabeled axon varicosities randomly selected from the same pictures and for which the long and short axes, as well as cross-sectional area were measured. Each varicosity was then categorized as containing or not a mitochondrion, and as showing or not a synaptic junctional complex, i.e. a localized straightening of apposed plasma membranes accompanied by a slight widening of the intercellular space and a thickening of the pre- and/or postsynaptic membrane. For each synaptic junction, the length of junctional complex was measured and the target identified, and each was categorized as symmetrical or asymmetrical. The synaptic incidence observed in single section was then extrapolated to whole volume of varicosities by means of the formula of Beaudet and Sotelo (
1981), using the long axis as diameter according to Umbriaco et al. (
1994). This formula allows the prediction of seeing a synapse if there is one on every varicosity by taking into account the average size of varicosity profiles, the length of their junctional complexes, and the thickness of the section. The synaptic incidence is inferred by comparison to this predicted value. This procedure has been validated experimentally by Umbriaco et al. (
1994) who found almost identical values of synaptic incidence for a large population of ChAT+ cortical varicosities in serial sections across their entire volume, and a randomized single section sample of these same varicosities. The microenvironment surrounding ten ChAT+ axon varicosities per pallidal segments of the four monkeys used for electron microscopy was examined. Unlabeled profiles directly apposed to immunostained axon varicosities were identified as unmyelinated or myelinated axon, cell body, dendrite or astrocyte and measured for long and short axes. The proportion for each type of profile surrounding the ChAT+ axon varicosities was then calculated.
Statistics
Wilcoxon-signed rank test was used to assess differences in the density of ChAT+ axon varicosities between the anterior and posterior halves of each pallidal segment. The same statistical approach was employed to detect differences between the lateral and medial halves and between the dorsal and ventral halves, as well as between the entire GPi and GPe. Statistical differences in neuronal densities between the anterior, posterior, dorsal, ventral, lateral and medial pallidal sectors, as well as between the two pallidal segments were assessed using the same approach. One-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s multiple comparison tests was used to identify differences in dimensions and synaptic incidence between ChAT+ and unlabeled axon varicosities, as well as between ChAT+ varicosities present in the GPi and those of the GPe. Differences were considered significant at P < 0.05. Statistical analysis was done using GraphPad Prism software (v. 5.0; GraphPad Software, San Diego, CA, USA) and SPSS (v. 20.0; IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). Mean and standard error of the mean are used throughout the text as central tendency and dispersion measure, respectively.