The definition of entitlements for curative care is typical for the Dutch system: new interventions are usually implicitly introduced into a largely unspecified benefit package. A small negative list explicitly excludes services from reimbursement. This reflects the absence of a systematic procedure for the evaluation of curative services when defining the basket.
Medical specialist care
The ZFW specifies a general entitlement to specialist care by hospitals (both inpatient and outpatient care): patients are entitled to medical, surgery, and obstetric care. Entitlement to hospital care also exists under the AWBZ if the patient must stay in hospital longer than 365 days. The provided care is limited merely by professional norms following the “usual care” principle (appropriateness according to professional standards). Also, a general statement is made that health care should be provided efficiently. Therefore the definition of entitlements for hospital care is rather implicit and the “usual care” criterion is not very restrictive. However, the entitlements are conditional upon the referral by a general practitioner, by another specialist to whom a general practitioner had referred the insured, or, where obstetric care is concerned, by a midwife.
A ministerial decree, the Regulations on Medical Specialist Care, further specifies entitlements by excluding specific forms of transplantation and plastic surgery. It also determines that only certain types of transplantations are covered, and states that entitlement to some services (e.g., plastic surgery) only exist if specific conditions are met. Finally, this regulation explicitly excludes services such as eyelid, ear or body sculpturing, in vitro fertilization (IVF), uvoloplasty for persons who snore, sterilization or undoing sterilization, and circumcision. It should be noted that IVF is a special case and its reimbursement policy changed several times. Today, health insurers are subsidized to fund IVF treatment for the insured after the first attempt has been paid out of pocket.
Pharmaceuticals dispensed in hospitals are part of the entitlement to hospital care. They are generally financed out of the hospital budget, but the insurer may separately reimburse an additional percentage (up to 80%) of the cost for very expensive hospital drugs.
The law remains rather vague about entitlements to hospital care, but a recently introduced pricing system has led to more explicit benefit definition. In 2005 a new system for hospital financing was introduced by law: the Diagnose Behandeling Combinaties (DBCs), a DRG-like system describing all products that are provided in hospitals. Medical experts were involved in the determination of these DBCs, which are defined as the whole set of activities (diagnostic and therapeutic interventions) of the hospital and medical specialist starting from the first consultation and diagnosis of the medical specialist in the hospital until discharge. Each DBC is characterized by a code combining information on diagnosis (International Classification of Diseases, 10th edition) and treatment. This system facilitates negotiations between health insurers and hospitals on prices (on a bilateral level), at the same time providing a catalogue of medical services. Table
2 shows how many different DBCs are defined within a medical specialty distinguishing between list A (prices fixed by the National Health Tariffs authority until further notice) and list B (prices negotiated by Sickness Funds and hospitals from January 2005 onwards). This catalogue of DBCs allows the specification of which DBCs are included in the basis package: the “red” list presents the number of DBCs not covered by compulsory insurance as determined by the Health Care Insurance Board on the basis of the “usual care” criterion and current explicit exclusions. Also an “orange” list exists with DBCs for which reimbursement is limited to certain groups of patients. Finally, the table lists the number of product groups that have been defined to cluster DBCs into homogeneous price groups, as negotiation on the price of each single DBC would not be feasible.
Table 2
Overview of the DBC system (January 2005)
Ophthalmology | 1,789 | 3 | 18 | 14 | 15 |
Otorhinolaryngology | 692 | 6 | – | 35 | 14 |
Surgery | 3,671 | 18 | 28 | 505 | 53 |
Plastic surgery | 13,712 | 63 | 205 | 544 | 33 |
Orthopedics | 3,058 | 14 | 12 | 4 | 43 |
Urology | 37,717 | 950 | 116 | 174 | 38 |
Gynecology | 536 | 22 | 6 | 34 | 34 |
Neurosurgery | 1,253 | 27 | 15 | 13 | 29 |
Dermatology | 396 | 10 | 32 | 33 | 11 |
Internal medicine | 3,335 | 19 | – | 612 | 49 |
Pediatrics | 3,492 | 10 | 9 | 12 | 61 |
Gastroenterology | 10,946 | 190 | – | 342 | 21 |
Cardiology | 353 | – | – | 44 | 39 |
Respiratory medicine | 1,054 | 14 | 55 | 371 | 43 |
Rheumatology | 2,042 | 12 | 951 | 96 | 17 |
Allergology | 599 | – | – | | 8 |
Thorax surgery | 1,034 | – | 10 | 50 | 27 |
Psychiatry | 648 | – | – | – | 3 |
Neurology | 2,739 | 18 | 44 | 61 | 43 |
Geriatrics | 918 | – | – | – | 16 |
Radiotherapy | 468 | – | – | 195 | 14 |
Radiology | 13,216 | – | – | 472 | 8 |
Anesthesiology | 582 | – | 10 | 38 | 19 |
Clinical genetics | 100 | – | – | | 3 |
Total | 104,350 | 1,376 | 1,511 | 3,649 | 641 |
An exception to the way in which medical specialist services are regulated is mental health care, which is currently covered under the AWBZ. Also the first year of treatment is covered by the AWBZ and not by the ZFW, as is the case for other medical specialist services. The reason is that psychotherapy is often a long and intensive treatment. Ambulatory psychotherapy is reimbursed (maximum of 25 sessions, 50 in the case of personality disorders) if referral is by a general practitioner or psychiatrist. Patients’ entitlements to mental health care through the AWBZ include treatment (therapy sessions and medication), supportive guidance, and accommodation. Special regulations apply to mental health care in children and to treatment of addictions. The objective is to make mental health care a part of the basic benefit package under the new Health Insurance Act and therefore shift it to compartment 2 in a competitive environment. To permit this change DBCs in mental health care are now being defined.
Primary care, dental care, and paramedical services
Primary care, i.e., medical and surgical care provided by general practitioners, is covered under the ZFW, as specified in the Health Insurance (Treatment and Services) Decree. Care involves mainly consultations and visits, the prescription of pharmaceutical care, referral to medical specialists, and minor operations. Entitlements to these services are also defined implicitly: any type and quantity of care consistent with professional norms is covered by the scheme.
Entitlements to dental care have been limited in the past and are defined explicitly. The ministerial regulation “Dental Care Health Insurance” stipulates that persons up to the age of 18 years are entitled to dental care under the ZFW. Dental care includes 14 types of services, among which are periodic checkups, fluoride application treatment, sealing, and periodontal care. Adults are entitled to dental care only under special circumstances: special dental conditions and physical or mental disabilities.
Paramedical care—consisting of physiotherapy, Mensendieck or Cesar remedial therapy, speech therapy and ergotherapy—is partly covered. The first nine sessions are excluded from reimbursement, but thereafter some patients over the age of 18 years are entitled to physiotherapy, Mensendieck or Cesar remedial therapy for the treatment of chronic conditions that are defined in the Regulations Governing the Provision of Paramedical Assistance.
Curative care at home
Under exceptional conditions and with authorization by the sickness fund, specialized services of curative care may be provided at home. First, persons are entitled to kidney dialysis at home or in a dialysis center under ZFW. If the dialysis takes place at home, the costs of training a person to carry out dialysis or providing assistance during the procedure are also covered. The costs of inspecting and maintaining equipment, modifying the home, providing special sanitary fittings, and heating are also reimbursable. Second, the ZFW regulates the use of treatment for chronic intermittent ventilation. Those covered by the ZFW are entitled to treatment at a ventilation center. A center may lend the patient the equipment for use at home or in a location where several persons can use the equipment. Specialist and pharmaceutical care provided by or on the advice of the ventilation center are also included.