Skip to main content
Erschienen in: Infection 4/2010

01.08.2010 | Consensus Report

Italian consensus statement on paediatric HIV infection

verfasst von: C. Giaquinto, M. Penazzato, R. Rosso, S. Bernardi, O. Rampon, P. Nasta, A. Ammassari, A. Antinori, R. Badolato, G. Castelli Gattinara, A. d’Arminio Monforte, M. De Martino, A. De Rossi, P. Di Gregorio, S. Esposito, F. Fatuzzo, S. Fiore, A. Franco, C. Gabiano, L. Galli, O. Genovese, V. Giacomet, A. Giannattasio, C. Gotta, A. Guarino, A. Martino, F. Mazzotta, N. Principi, M. B. Regazzi, P. Rossi, R. Russo, M. Saitta, F. Salvini, S. Trotta, A. Viganò, G. Zuccotti, G. Carosi, The Italian Paediatric HIV Infection Working Group

Erschienen in: Infection | Ausgabe 4/2010

Einloggen, um Zugang zu erhalten

Abstract

The objective of this document is to identify and reinforce current recommendations concerning the management of HIV infection in infants and children in the context of good resource availability. All recommendations were graded according to the strength and quality of the evidence and were voted on by the 57 participants attending the first Italian Consensus on Paediatric HIV, held in Siracusa in 2008. Paediatricians and HIV/AIDS care specialists were requested to agree on different statements summarizing key issues in the management of paediatric HIV. The comprehensive approach on preventing mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) has clearly reduced the number of children acquiring the infection in Italy. Although further reduction of MTCT should be attempted, efforts to personalize intervention to specific cases are now required in order to optimise the treatment and care of HIV-infected children. The prompt initiation of treatment and careful selection of first-line regimen, taking into consideration potency and tolerance, remain central. In addition, opportunistic infection prevention, adherence to treatment, and long-term psychosocial consequences are becoming increasingly relevant in the era of effective antiretroviral combination therapies (ART). The increasing proportion of infected children achieving adulthood highlights the need for multidisciplinary strategies to facilitate transition to adult care and maintain strategies specific to perinatally acquired HIV infection.
Anhänge
Nur mit Berechtigung zugänglich
Literatur
1.
Zurück zum Zitat The Italian Register for HIV Infection in Children. Update report April 2009. The Italian Register for HIV Infection in Children. Update report April 2009.
2.
Zurück zum Zitat Gortmaker SL, Hughes M, Cervia J, Brady M, Johnson GM, Seage GR 3rd, et al. Effect of combination therapy including protease inhibitors on mortality among children and adolescents infected with HIV-1. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:1522–8.CrossRefPubMed Gortmaker SL, Hughes M, Cervia J, Brady M, Johnson GM, Seage GR 3rd, et al. Effect of combination therapy including protease inhibitors on mortality among children and adolescents infected with HIV-1. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:1522–8.CrossRefPubMed
3.
Zurück zum Zitat Gona P, Van Dyke RB, Williams PL, Dankner WM, Chernoff MC, Nachman SA, et al. Incidence of opportunistic and other infections in HIV-infected children in the ART era. JAMA. 2006;296:292–300.CrossRefPubMed Gona P, Van Dyke RB, Williams PL, Dankner WM, Chernoff MC, Nachman SA, et al. Incidence of opportunistic and other infections in HIV-infected children in the ART era. JAMA. 2006;296:292–300.CrossRefPubMed
4.
Zurück zum Zitat Selik RM, Lindegren ML. Changes in deaths reported with human immunodeficiency virus infection among United States children less than thirteen years old, 1987 through 1999. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2003;22:635–41.CrossRefPubMed Selik RM, Lindegren ML. Changes in deaths reported with human immunodeficiency virus infection among United States children less than thirteen years old, 1987 through 1999. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2003;22:635–41.CrossRefPubMed
5.
Zurück zum Zitat Gibb DM, Duong T, Tookey PA, Sharland M, Tudor-Williams G, Novelli V, et al. National Study of HIV in Pregnancy and Childhood Collaborative HIV Paediatric Study. Decline in mortality, AIDS, and hospital admissions in perinatally HIV-1 infected children in the United Kingdom and Ireland. BMJ. 2003;327:1019.CrossRefPubMed Gibb DM, Duong T, Tookey PA, Sharland M, Tudor-Williams G, Novelli V, et al. National Study of HIV in Pregnancy and Childhood Collaborative HIV Paediatric Study. Decline in mortality, AIDS, and hospital admissions in perinatally HIV-1 infected children in the United Kingdom and Ireland. BMJ. 2003;327:1019.CrossRefPubMed
6.
Zurück zum Zitat McConnell MS, Byers RH, Frederick T, Peters VB, Dominguez KL, Sukalac T, et al. Trends in antiretroviral therapy use and survival rates for a large cohort of HIV-infected children and adolescents in the United States, 1989–2001. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2005;38:488–94.CrossRefPubMed McConnell MS, Byers RH, Frederick T, Peters VB, Dominguez KL, Sukalac T, et al. Trends in antiretroviral therapy use and survival rates for a large cohort of HIV-infected children and adolescents in the United States, 1989–2001. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2005;38:488–94.CrossRefPubMed
7.
Zurück zum Zitat Judd A, Doerholt K, Tookey PA, Sharland M, Riordan A, Menson E, et al. Morbidity, mortality, and response to treatment by children in the United Kingdom and Ireland with perinatally acquired HIV infection during 1996–2006: planning for teenage and adult care. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45:918–24.CrossRefPubMed Judd A, Doerholt K, Tookey PA, Sharland M, Riordan A, Menson E, et al. Morbidity, mortality, and response to treatment by children in the United Kingdom and Ireland with perinatally acquired HIV infection during 1996–2006: planning for teenage and adult care. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45:918–24.CrossRefPubMed
8.
Zurück zum Zitat Carosi G, Torti C, Andreoni M, Angarano G, Antinori A, Bonora S, et al. Key questions in antiretroviral therapy: Italian consensus workshop (2005). J Antimicrob Chemother. 2006;57:1055–64.CrossRefPubMed Carosi G, Torti C, Andreoni M, Angarano G, Antinori A, Bonora S, et al. Key questions in antiretroviral therapy: Italian consensus workshop (2005). J Antimicrob Chemother. 2006;57:1055–64.CrossRefPubMed
9.
Zurück zum Zitat The European Mode of Delivery Collaboration. Elective caesarian-section vs. vaginal delivery in prevention of vertical HIV-1 transmission: a randomized clinical trial. Lancet 1999;353:1035–39. The European Mode of Delivery Collaboration. Elective caesarian-section vs. vaginal delivery in prevention of vertical HIV-1 transmission: a randomized clinical trial. Lancet 1999;353:1035–39.
10.
Zurück zum Zitat The International Perinatal HIV Group. Mode of delivery and vertical transmission of HIV-1: a meta-analysis from 15 prospective cohort studies. N Engl J Med. 1999;340:977–87.CrossRef The International Perinatal HIV Group. Mode of delivery and vertical transmission of HIV-1: a meta-analysis from 15 prospective cohort studies. N Engl J Med. 1999;340:977–87.CrossRef
11.
Zurück zum Zitat Kind C, Rudin C, Siegrist CA, Wyler CA, Biedermann K, Lauper U, et al. Prevention of vertical HIV transmission: additive protective effect of elective Cesarean section and zidovudine prophylaxis. Swiss Neonatal HIV Study Group. AIDS. 1998;12:205–10.CrossRefPubMed Kind C, Rudin C, Siegrist CA, Wyler CA, Biedermann K, Lauper U, et al. Prevention of vertical HIV transmission: additive protective effect of elective Cesarean section and zidovudine prophylaxis. Swiss Neonatal HIV Study Group. AIDS. 1998;12:205–10.CrossRefPubMed
13.
Zurück zum Zitat European HIV in Obstetrics Group. Higher rates of post-partum complications in HIV infected than in uninfected women irrespective of mode of delivery. AIDS. 2004;18:933–8.CrossRef European HIV in Obstetrics Group. Higher rates of post-partum complications in HIV infected than in uninfected women irrespective of mode of delivery. AIDS. 2004;18:933–8.CrossRef
15.
Zurück zum Zitat European Collaborative Study. Mother-to-child transmission of HIV infection in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;40:458–65.CrossRef European Collaborative Study. Mother-to-child transmission of HIV infection in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;40:458–65.CrossRef
16.
Zurück zum Zitat Cooper ER, Charurat M, Mofenson L, Hanson IC, Pitt J, Diaz C, et al. Combination antiretroviral strategies for the treatment of pregnant HIV-1- infected women and prevention of perinatal HIV-1 transmission. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2002;29:484–94.PubMed Cooper ER, Charurat M, Mofenson L, Hanson IC, Pitt J, Diaz C, et al. Combination antiretroviral strategies for the treatment of pregnant HIV-1- infected women and prevention of perinatal HIV-1 transmission. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2002;29:484–94.PubMed
17.
Zurück zum Zitat Galli L, Puliti D, Chiappini E, Gabbiano C, Ferrarsi G, Mignone F, Vigano A, Giaquinto C, Genovese O, Anzi dei G, Badolato R Buffolato W, Maccabruni A, Salvini F, Cellini M, Ruggeri M, Manzionna M, Bernardi S, Tovo P, De Martino M on behalf of Italian Register for HIV infection in children. Is the interruption of antiretroviral treatment during pregnancy an additional major risk factor for mother-to-child transmission of HIV type 1? Clin Infect Dis 2009;48:1310–17. Galli L, Puliti D, Chiappini E, Gabbiano C, Ferrarsi G, Mignone F, Vigano A, Giaquinto C, Genovese O, Anzi dei G, Badolato R Buffolato W, Maccabruni A, Salvini F, Cellini M, Ruggeri M, Manzionna M, Bernardi S, Tovo P, De Martino M on behalf of Italian Register for HIV infection in children. Is the interruption of antiretroviral treatment during pregnancy an additional major risk factor for mother-to-child transmission of HIV type 1? Clin Infect Dis 2009;48:1310–17.
18.
Zurück zum Zitat Nduati R, John G, Mbori-Ngacha D, Richardson B, Overbaugh J, Mwatha A, et al. Effect of breastfeeding and formula feeding on transmission of HIV-1: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2000;283:1167–74.CrossRefPubMed Nduati R, John G, Mbori-Ngacha D, Richardson B, Overbaugh J, Mwatha A, et al. Effect of breastfeeding and formula feeding on transmission of HIV-1: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2000;283:1167–74.CrossRefPubMed
19.
Zurück zum Zitat Connor EM, Sperling RS, Gelber R, Kiselev P, Scott G, O’Sullivan MJ, et al. Reduction of maternal-infant transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 with zidovudine treatment. N Engl J Med. 1994;331:1173–80.CrossRefPubMed Connor EM, Sperling RS, Gelber R, Kiselev P, Scott G, O’Sullivan MJ, et al. Reduction of maternal-infant transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 with zidovudine treatment. N Engl J Med. 1994;331:1173–80.CrossRefPubMed
20.
Zurück zum Zitat The Italian Register for HIV Infection in Children. Determinants of mother-to-infant human immunodeficiency virus 1 transmission before and after the introduction of zidovudine prophylaxis. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2002;156:915–21. The Italian Register for HIV Infection in Children. Determinants of mother-to-infant human immunodeficiency virus 1 transmission before and after the introduction of zidovudine prophylaxis. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2002;156:915–21.
21.
Zurück zum Zitat Mandelbrot L, Le Chenadec J, Berrebi A, Bongain A, Bénifla JL, Delfraissy JF, et al. Perinatal HIV-1 transmission—interaction between zidovudine prophylaxis and mode of delivery in the French Perinatal Cohort. JAMA. 1998;280:55–60.CrossRefPubMed Mandelbrot L, Le Chenadec J, Berrebi A, Bongain A, Bénifla JL, Delfraissy JF, et al. Perinatal HIV-1 transmission—interaction between zidovudine prophylaxis and mode of delivery in the French Perinatal Cohort. JAMA. 1998;280:55–60.CrossRefPubMed
22.
Zurück zum Zitat Dorenbaum A, Cunningham CK, Gelber RD, Culnane M, Mofenson L, Britto P, et al. International PACTG 316 Team. Two-dose intrapartum/newborn nevirapine and standard antiretroviral therapy to reduce perinatal HIV transmission. A randomized trial. JAMA. 2002;288:189–98.CrossRefPubMed Dorenbaum A, Cunningham CK, Gelber RD, Culnane M, Mofenson L, Britto P, et al. International PACTG 316 Team. Two-dose intrapartum/newborn nevirapine and standard antiretroviral therapy to reduce perinatal HIV transmission. A randomized trial. JAMA. 2002;288:189–98.CrossRefPubMed
23.
Zurück zum Zitat Van Rompay KK, Greenier JL, Marthas ML, Otsyula MG, Tarara RP, Miller CJ, et al. Immediate zidovudine treatment protects simian immunodeficiency virus- infected newborn macaques against rapid onset of AIDS. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1995;39:125–31.PubMed Van Rompay KK, Greenier JL, Marthas ML, Otsyula MG, Tarara RP, Miller CJ, et al. Immediate zidovudine treatment protects simian immunodeficiency virus- infected newborn macaques against rapid onset of AIDS. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1995;39:125–31.PubMed
24.
Zurück zum Zitat Tsai CC, Follis KE, Sabo A, Beck TW, Grant RF, Bischofberger N, et al. Prevention of SIV infection in macaques by (R)-9-(2-phosphonylmethoxypropyl) adenine [lett]. Science. 1995;270:1197–9.CrossRefPubMed Tsai CC, Follis KE, Sabo A, Beck TW, Grant RF, Bischofberger N, et al. Prevention of SIV infection in macaques by (R)-9-(2-phosphonylmethoxypropyl) adenine [lett]. Science. 1995;270:1197–9.CrossRefPubMed
25.
Zurück zum Zitat Böttiger D, Johansson NG, Samuelsson B, Zhang H, Putkonen P, Vrang L, et al. Prevention of simian immunodeficiency virus, SIVsm, or HIV-2 infection in cynomolgus monkeys by pre- and postexposure administration of BEA-005. AIDS. 1997;11:157–62.CrossRefPubMed Böttiger D, Johansson NG, Samuelsson B, Zhang H, Putkonen P, Vrang L, et al. Prevention of simian immunodeficiency virus, SIVsm, or HIV-2 infection in cynomolgus monkeys by pre- and postexposure administration of BEA-005. AIDS. 1997;11:157–62.CrossRefPubMed
26.
Zurück zum Zitat Wade NA, Birkhead GS, Warren BL, Charbonneau TT, French PT, Wang L, et al. Abbreviated regimens of zidovudine prophylaxis and perinatal transmission of the human immunodeficiency virus. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:1409–14.CrossRefPubMed Wade NA, Birkhead GS, Warren BL, Charbonneau TT, French PT, Wang L, et al. Abbreviated regimens of zidovudine prophylaxis and perinatal transmission of the human immunodeficiency virus. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:1409–14.CrossRefPubMed
27.
Zurück zum Zitat Mandelbrot L, Landreau-Mascaro A, Rekacewicz C, Berrebi A, Bénifla JL, Burgard M, et al. Lamivudine–zidovudine combination for prevention on maternal–infant transmission of HIV-1. JAMA. 2001;285:2083–93.CrossRefPubMed Mandelbrot L, Landreau-Mascaro A, Rekacewicz C, Berrebi A, Bénifla JL, Burgard M, et al. Lamivudine–zidovudine combination for prevention on maternal–infant transmission of HIV-1. JAMA. 2001;285:2083–93.CrossRefPubMed
28.
Zurück zum Zitat Guay GE, Urban M, Chersich MF, Bolton C, van Niekerk R, Violari A, Stevens W, McIntyre JA; for the PEP Study Group. A randomized trial of two postexposure prophylaxis regimens to reduce mother-to-child transmission on infants of untreated mothers. AIDS 2005;19:1289–97. Guay GE, Urban M, Chersich MF, Bolton C, van Niekerk R, Violari A, Stevens W, McIntyre JA; for the PEP Study Group. A randomized trial of two postexposure prophylaxis regimens to reduce mother-to-child transmission on infants of untreated mothers. AIDS 2005;19:1289–97.
29.
Zurück zum Zitat Lallemant M, Jourdain G, Le Coeur S, Mary JY, Ngo-Giang-Huong N, Koetsawang S, et al. A trial of shortened zidovudine regimens to prevent mother-to-child transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Perinatal HIV Prevention Trial (Thailand) Investigators. N Engl J Med. 2000;343:982–91.CrossRefPubMed Lallemant M, Jourdain G, Le Coeur S, Mary JY, Ngo-Giang-Huong N, Koetsawang S, et al. A trial of shortened zidovudine regimens to prevent mother-to-child transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Perinatal HIV Prevention Trial (Thailand) Investigators. N Engl J Med. 2000;343:982–91.CrossRefPubMed
31.
Zurück zum Zitat Sperling RS, Shapiro DE, Coombs RW, Todd JA, Herman SA, McSherry GD, et al. Maternal viral load, zidovudine treatment, and the risk of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 from mother to child. N Engl J Med. 1996;335:1621–9.CrossRefPubMed Sperling RS, Shapiro DE, Coombs RW, Todd JA, Herman SA, McSherry GD, et al. Maternal viral load, zidovudine treatment, and the risk of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 from mother to child. N Engl J Med. 1996;335:1621–9.CrossRefPubMed
32.
Zurück zum Zitat Read JS, American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Pediatric AIDS. Human milk, breastfeeding, and transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in the United States. Pediatrics. 2003;112:1196–205.CrossRefPubMed Read JS, American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Pediatric AIDS. Human milk, breastfeeding, and transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in the United States. Pediatrics. 2003;112:1196–205.CrossRefPubMed
33.
Zurück zum Zitat Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings. MMWR. 2006;55:1–17. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings. MMWR. 2006;55:1–17.
34.
Zurück zum Zitat Havens PL, Mofenson LM, American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Pediatric AIDS. HIV testing and prophylaxis to prevent mother-to-child transmission in the United States. Pediatrics. 2008;122:1127–34.CrossRef Havens PL, Mofenson LM, American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Pediatric AIDS. HIV testing and prophylaxis to prevent mother-to-child transmission in the United States. Pediatrics. 2008;122:1127–34.CrossRef
35.
Zurück zum Zitat Fiscus SA, Schoenbach VJ, Wilfert C. Short courses of zidovudine and perinatal transmission of HIV. N Engl J Med. 1999;340:1040–1.CrossRefPubMed Fiscus SA, Schoenbach VJ, Wilfert C. Short courses of zidovudine and perinatal transmission of HIV. N Engl J Med. 1999;340:1040–1.CrossRefPubMed
36.
Zurück zum Zitat Read JS, Committee on Pediatric AIDS, American Academy of Pediatrics. Diagnosis of HIV-1 infection in children younger than 18 months in the United States. Pediatrics. 2007;120:1547–62.CrossRef Read JS, Committee on Pediatric AIDS, American Academy of Pediatrics. Diagnosis of HIV-1 infection in children younger than 18 months in the United States. Pediatrics. 2007;120:1547–62.CrossRef
37.
Zurück zum Zitat European Collaborative Study. Increased risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes in ART-treated HIV-infected women in Europe. AIDS. 2004;17:2337–9. European Collaborative Study. Increased risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes in ART-treated HIV-infected women in Europe. AIDS. 2004;17:2337–9.
38.
Zurück zum Zitat Public Health Service Task Force. Safety and toxicity of individual antiretroviral agents in pregnancy. Supplement to PHSTF Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs in pregnant HIV-1 infected women for maternal health and interventions to reduce perinatal HIV-1 transmission in the United States. PHSTF, 2004. http://aidsinfo.nih.gov. Public Health Service Task Force. Safety and toxicity of individual antiretroviral agents in pregnancy. Supplement to PHSTF Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs in pregnant HIV-1 infected women for maternal health and interventions to reduce perinatal HIV-1 transmission in the United States. PHSTF, 2004. http://​aidsinfo.​nih.​gov.
39.
Zurück zum Zitat Le Chenadec J, Mayaux MJ, Guihenneuc-Jouyaux C, Blanche S. Perinatal antiretroviral treatment and hematopoiesis in HIV-uninfected infants. AIDS. 2003;17:2053–61.CrossRefPubMed Le Chenadec J, Mayaux MJ, Guihenneuc-Jouyaux C, Blanche S. Perinatal antiretroviral treatment and hematopoiesis in HIV-uninfected infants. AIDS. 2003;17:2053–61.CrossRefPubMed
40.
Zurück zum Zitat European Collaborative Study. Levels and patterns of neutrophil cell counts over the first 8 years of life in children of HIV-1 infected mothers. AIDS. 2004;18:2009–17.CrossRef European Collaborative Study. Levels and patterns of neutrophil cell counts over the first 8 years of life in children of HIV-1 infected mothers. AIDS. 2004;18:2009–17.CrossRef
41.
Zurück zum Zitat Townsend C, Schulte J, Thorne CL, Dominguez K, Cortina Borja M, Packham CS, Bohannon B, Tookey P. Exploring heterogeneity in the association between HAART and prematurity in three observational studies. 13th Observational workshop on Observational databases, Lisbon 26–28 March 2009. Townsend C, Schulte J, Thorne CL, Dominguez K, Cortina Borja M, Packham CS, Bohannon B, Tookey P. Exploring heterogeneity in the association between HAART and prematurity in three observational studies. 13th Observational workshop on Observational databases, Lisbon 26–28 March 2009.
42.
Zurück zum Zitat Noguera A, Fortuny C, Muñoz-Almagro C, Sanchez E, Vilaseca MA, Artuch R, et al. Hyperlactatemia in human immunodeficiency virus-uninfected infants who are exposed to antiretrovirals. Pediatrics. 2004;114:598–604.CrossRef Noguera A, Fortuny C, Muñoz-Almagro C, Sanchez E, Vilaseca MA, Artuch R, et al. Hyperlactatemia in human immunodeficiency virus-uninfected infants who are exposed to antiretrovirals. Pediatrics. 2004;114:598–604.CrossRef
43.
Zurück zum Zitat Ekouevi DK, Touré R, Becquet R, Viho I, Sakarovitch C, Rouet F, et al. Serum lactate levels in infants exposed peripartum to antiretroviral agents to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV: agence Nationale de Recherches Sur le SIDA et les Hepatites Virales 1209 study, Abidjan, Ivory Coast. Pediatrics. 2006;118:1071–7.CrossRef Ekouevi DK, Touré R, Becquet R, Viho I, Sakarovitch C, Rouet F, et al. Serum lactate levels in infants exposed peripartum to antiretroviral agents to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV: agence Nationale de Recherches Sur le SIDA et les Hepatites Virales 1209 study, Abidjan, Ivory Coast. Pediatrics. 2006;118:1071–7.CrossRef
44.
Zurück zum Zitat Blanche S, Tardieu M, Rustin P, Slama A, Barret B, Firtion G, et al. Persistent mitochondrial dysfunction and perinatal exposure to antiretroviral nucleoside analogues. Lancet. 1999;354:1084–9.CrossRefPubMed Blanche S, Tardieu M, Rustin P, Slama A, Barret B, Firtion G, et al. Persistent mitochondrial dysfunction and perinatal exposure to antiretroviral nucleoside analogues. Lancet. 1999;354:1084–9.CrossRefPubMed
45.
Zurück zum Zitat Alimenti A, Burdge DR, Ogilvie GS, Money DM, Forbes JC. Lactic acidemia in human immunodeficiency virus-uninfected infants exposed to perinatal antiretroviral therapy. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2003;22:782–9.CrossRefPubMed Alimenti A, Burdge DR, Ogilvie GS, Money DM, Forbes JC. Lactic acidemia in human immunodeficiency virus-uninfected infants exposed to perinatal antiretroviral therapy. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2003;22:782–9.CrossRefPubMed
46.
Zurück zum Zitat Giaquinto C, De Romeo A, Giacomet V, Rampon O, Ruga E, Burlina A, et al. Lactic acid levels in children perinatally treated with antiretroviral agents to prevent HIV transmission. AIDS. 2001;15:1074–5.CrossRefPubMed Giaquinto C, De Romeo A, Giacomet V, Rampon O, Ruga E, Burlina A, et al. Lactic acid levels in children perinatally treated with antiretroviral agents to prevent HIV transmission. AIDS. 2001;15:1074–5.CrossRefPubMed
47.
Zurück zum Zitat Dominguez K, Bertolli J, Fowler M, Peters V, Ortiz I, Melville S, et al. Lack of definitive severe mitochondrial signs and symptoms among deceased HIV-uninfected and HIV-indeterminate children < or = 5 years of age, Pediatric Spectrum of HIV Disease project (PSD), USA. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2000;918:236–46.CrossRefPubMed Dominguez K, Bertolli J, Fowler M, Peters V, Ortiz I, Melville S, et al. Lack of definitive severe mitochondrial signs and symptoms among deceased HIV-uninfected and HIV-indeterminate children < or = 5 years of age, Pediatric Spectrum of HIV Disease project (PSD), USA. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2000;918:236–46.CrossRefPubMed
48.
Zurück zum Zitat The European Collaborative Study. Hospitalization of children born to human immunodeficiency virus infected women in Europe. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1997;16:1151–6.CrossRef The European Collaborative Study. Hospitalization of children born to human immunodeficiency virus infected women in Europe. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1997;16:1151–6.CrossRef
49.
Zurück zum Zitat Dunn D, Woodburn P, Duong T, Peto J, Phillips A, Gibb D, et al. Current CD4 cell count and the short-term risk of AIDS and death before the availability of effective antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected children and adults. J Infect Dis. 2008;197:398–404.CrossRefPubMed Dunn D, Woodburn P, Duong T, Peto J, Phillips A, Gibb D, et al. Current CD4 cell count and the short-term risk of AIDS and death before the availability of effective antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected children and adults. J Infect Dis. 2008;197:398–404.CrossRefPubMed
50.
Zurück zum Zitat Walker AS, Doerholt K, Sharland M, Gibb DM, Collaborative HIV Paediatric Study (CHIPS) Steering Committee. Response to highly active antiretroviral therapy varies with age: the UK and Ireland Collaborative HIV Paediatric Study. AIDS. 2004;18:1915–24.CrossRefPubMed Walker AS, Doerholt K, Sharland M, Gibb DM, Collaborative HIV Paediatric Study (CHIPS) Steering Committee. Response to highly active antiretroviral therapy varies with age: the UK and Ireland Collaborative HIV Paediatric Study. AIDS. 2004;18:1915–24.CrossRefPubMed
51.
52.
Zurück zum Zitat Ometto L, De Forni D, Patiri F, Trouplin V, Mammano F, Giacomet V, et al. Immune reconstitution in HIV-1-infected children on antiretroviral therapy: role of thymic output and viral fitness. AIDS. 2002;16:839–49.CrossRefPubMed Ometto L, De Forni D, Patiri F, Trouplin V, Mammano F, Giacomet V, et al. Immune reconstitution in HIV-1-infected children on antiretroviral therapy: role of thymic output and viral fitness. AIDS. 2002;16:839–49.CrossRefPubMed
53.
Zurück zum Zitat The European Collaborative Study. Age-related standards for T lymphocytes subsets based on uninfected children born to HIV-infected women. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1992;11:1018–26.CrossRef The European Collaborative Study. Age-related standards for T lymphocytes subsets based on uninfected children born to HIV-infected women. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1992;11:1018–26.CrossRef
54.
Zurück zum Zitat Kovacs A, Montepiedra G, Carey V, Pahwa S, Weinberg A, Frenkel L, et al. Immune reconstitution after receipt of highly active antiretroviral therapy in children with advanced or progressive HIV disease and complete or partial viral load response. J Infect Dis. 2005;192:296–302.CrossRefPubMed Kovacs A, Montepiedra G, Carey V, Pahwa S, Weinberg A, Frenkel L, et al. Immune reconstitution after receipt of highly active antiretroviral therapy in children with advanced or progressive HIV disease and complete or partial viral load response. J Infect Dis. 2005;192:296–302.CrossRefPubMed
55.
Zurück zum Zitat De Rossi A, Walker AS, Klein N, De Forni D, King D, Gibb DM. Increased thymic output after initiation of antiretroviral therapy in human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected children in the Paediatric European Network for Treatment of AIDS (PENTA) 5 Trial. J Infect Dis. 2002;186:312–20.CrossRefPubMed De Rossi A, Walker AS, Klein N, De Forni D, King D, Gibb DM. Increased thymic output after initiation of antiretroviral therapy in human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected children in the Paediatric European Network for Treatment of AIDS (PENTA) 5 Trial. J Infect Dis. 2002;186:312–20.CrossRefPubMed
56.
Zurück zum Zitat Bagnarelli P, Vecchi M, Burighel N, Bellanova D, Menzo S, Clementi M, et al. Genotypic and phenotypic correlates of the HIV type 1 env gene evolution in infected children with discordant response to antiretroviral therapy. AIDS Res Hum Retrovir. 2004;20:1306–13.CrossRefPubMed Bagnarelli P, Vecchi M, Burighel N, Bellanova D, Menzo S, Clementi M, et al. Genotypic and phenotypic correlates of the HIV type 1 env gene evolution in infected children with discordant response to antiretroviral therapy. AIDS Res Hum Retrovir. 2004;20:1306–13.CrossRefPubMed
57.
Zurück zum Zitat Patel K, PENTA group 219 study team, et al. Long-term effects of highly active antiretroviral therapy on CD4+ cell evolution among children and adolescents infected with HIV: 5 years and counting. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;46:1751–60.CrossRefPubMed Patel K, PENTA group 219 study team, et al. Long-term effects of highly active antiretroviral therapy on CD4+ cell evolution among children and adolescents infected with HIV: 5 years and counting. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;46:1751–60.CrossRefPubMed
58.
Zurück zum Zitat Chiappini E, Galli L, Tovo PA, Gabiano C, Lisi C, Gattinara GC, et al. Changing patterns of clinical events inperinatally HIV-1 infected children during the era of HAART. AIDS. 2007;21:1607–15.CrossRefPubMed Chiappini E, Galli L, Tovo PA, Gabiano C, Lisi C, Gattinara GC, et al. Changing patterns of clinical events inperinatally HIV-1 infected children during the era of HAART. AIDS. 2007;21:1607–15.CrossRefPubMed
61.
Zurück zum Zitat Sharland M, Blanche S, Castelli G, Ramos J, Gibb DM, on behalf of the PENTA Steering Committee. PENTA guidelines for the use of antiretroviral therapy, 2004. HIV Med. 2004;5:61–86.CrossRefPubMed Sharland M, Blanche S, Castelli G, Ramos J, Gibb DM, on behalf of the PENTA Steering Committee. PENTA guidelines for the use of antiretroviral therapy, 2004. HIV Med. 2004;5:61–86.CrossRefPubMed
62.
Zurück zum Zitat Zanchetta M, Anselmi A, Vendrame D, Rampon O, Giaquinto C, Mazza A, et al. HIV-1-infected children: effect on HIV-1 dynamics and HIV-1-specific immune response. Antivir Therapy. 2008;13:47–55. Zanchetta M, Anselmi A, Vendrame D, Rampon O, Giaquinto C, Mazza A, et al. HIV-1-infected children: effect on HIV-1 dynamics and HIV-1-specific immune response. Antivir Therapy. 2008;13:47–55.
63.
Zurück zum Zitat Palma P, Romiti ML, Cancrini C, Pensieroso S, Montesano C, Bernardi S, et al. Delayed early antiretroviral treatment is associated with an HIV-specific long-term cellular response in HIV-1 vertically infected infants. Vaccine. 2008;26:5196–201.CrossRefPubMed Palma P, Romiti ML, Cancrini C, Pensieroso S, Montesano C, Bernardi S, et al. Delayed early antiretroviral treatment is associated with an HIV-specific long-term cellular response in HIV-1 vertically infected infants. Vaccine. 2008;26:5196–201.CrossRefPubMed
64.
Zurück zum Zitat Kearns GL, Abdel-Rahman SM, Alander SW, Blowey DL, Leeder JS, Kauffman RE. Developmental pharmacology—drug disposition, action, and therapy in infants and children. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:1157–67.CrossRefPubMed Kearns GL, Abdel-Rahman SM, Alander SW, Blowey DL, Leeder JS, Kauffman RE. Developmental pharmacology—drug disposition, action, and therapy in infants and children. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:1157–67.CrossRefPubMed
65.
Zurück zum Zitat Fraaij PL, Rakhmanina N, Burger D, de Groot R. Therapeutic drug monitoring in children with HIV/AIDS. Ther Drug Monit. 2004;26:122–6.CrossRefPubMed Fraaij PL, Rakhmanina N, Burger D, de Groot R. Therapeutic drug monitoring in children with HIV/AIDS. Ther Drug Monit. 2004;26:122–6.CrossRefPubMed
66.
Zurück zum Zitat HIV Paediatric Prognostic Markers Collaborative Study Group. Predictive value of absolute CD4 cell count for disease progression in untreated HIV-1-infected children. AIDS. 2006;20:1289–94.CrossRef HIV Paediatric Prognostic Markers Collaborative Study Group. Predictive value of absolute CD4 cell count for disease progression in untreated HIV-1-infected children. AIDS. 2006;20:1289–94.CrossRef
67.
Zurück zum Zitat Newell ML, Patel D, Goetghebuer T, Thorne C, European Collaborative Study. CD4 cell response to antiretroviral therapy in children with vertically acquired HIV infection: is it associated with age at initiation? J Infect Dis. 2006;193:954–62.CrossRefPubMed Newell ML, Patel D, Goetghebuer T, Thorne C, European Collaborative Study. CD4 cell response to antiretroviral therapy in children with vertically acquired HIV infection: is it associated with age at initiation? J Infect Dis. 2006;193:954–62.CrossRefPubMed
68.
Zurück zum Zitat Faye A, Le Chenadec J, Dollfus C, Thuret I, Douard D, Firtion G, et al. Early versus deferred antiretroviral multidrug therapy in infants infected with HIV type 1. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39:1692–8.CrossRefPubMed Faye A, Le Chenadec J, Dollfus C, Thuret I, Douard D, Firtion G, et al. Early versus deferred antiretroviral multidrug therapy in infants infected with HIV type 1. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39:1692–8.CrossRefPubMed
69.
Zurück zum Zitat Chiappini E, Galli L, Tovo PA, Gabiano C, Gattinara GC, Guarino A, et al. Virologic, immunologic, and clinical benefits from early combined antiretroviral therapy in infants with perinatal HIV-1 infection. AIDS. 2006;20:207–15.CrossRefPubMed Chiappini E, Galli L, Tovo PA, Gabiano C, Gattinara GC, Guarino A, et al. Virologic, immunologic, and clinical benefits from early combined antiretroviral therapy in infants with perinatal HIV-1 infection. AIDS. 2006;20:207–15.CrossRefPubMed
70.
Zurück zum Zitat Van der Linden D, Hainaut M, Goetghebuer T, Haelterman E, Schmitz V, Maes P, et al. Effectiveness of early initiation of protease inhibitor-sparing antiretroviral regimen in human immunodeficiency virus-1 vertically infected infants. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2007;26:359–61.CrossRefPubMed Van der Linden D, Hainaut M, Goetghebuer T, Haelterman E, Schmitz V, Maes P, et al. Effectiveness of early initiation of protease inhibitor-sparing antiretroviral regimen in human immunodeficiency virus-1 vertically infected infants. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2007;26:359–61.CrossRefPubMed
71.
Zurück zum Zitat Aboulker JP, Babiker A, Chaix ML, Compagnucci A, Darbyshire J, Debre M, Faye A, Giaquinto C, Gibb DM, Harper L, Saidi Y, Walker AS. Highly active antiretroviral therapy started in infants under 3 months of age: 72-week follow-up for CD4 cell count, viral load and drug resistance outcome. AIDS 2004;18:237–245. Aboulker JP, Babiker A, Chaix ML, Compagnucci A, Darbyshire J, Debre M, Faye A, Giaquinto C, Gibb DM, Harper L, Saidi Y, Walker AS. Highly active antiretroviral therapy started in infants under 3 months of age: 72-week follow-up for CD4 cell count, viral load and drug resistance outcome. AIDS 2004;18:237–245.
72.
Zurück zum Zitat Goetghebuer T, Haelterman E, Le Chenadec J, Dolfus C, Gibb D, Judd A, et al. Effect of early antiretroviral therapy on the risk of AIDS/death in HIV-infected infants. AIDS. 2009;23:597–604.CrossRefPubMed Goetghebuer T, Haelterman E, Le Chenadec J, Dolfus C, Gibb D, Judd A, et al. Effect of early antiretroviral therapy on the risk of AIDS/death in HIV-infected infants. AIDS. 2009;23:597–604.CrossRefPubMed
73.
Zurück zum Zitat Violari A, Cotton MF, Gibb DM, Babiker AG, Steyn J, Madhi SA, et al. Early antiretroviral therapy and mortality among HIV-infected infants. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:2233–44.CrossRefPubMed Violari A, Cotton MF, Gibb DM, Babiker AG, Steyn J, Madhi SA, et al. Early antiretroviral therapy and mortality among HIV-infected infants. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:2233–44.CrossRefPubMed
74.
Zurück zum Zitat Strategies for Management of Antiretroviral Therapy (SMART) Study Group, El-Sadr WM, Lundgren JD, Neaton JD, Gordin F, Abrams D, Arduino RC, Babiker A, Burman W, Clumeck N, Cohen CJ, Cohn D, Cooper D, Darbyshire J, Emery S, Fätkenheuer G, Gazzard B, Grund B, Hoy J, Klingman K, Losso M, Markowitz N, Neuhaus J, Phillips A, Rappoport C. CD4+ count-guided interruption of antiretroviral treatment. N Engl J Med 2006;355: 2283–96. Strategies for Management of Antiretroviral Therapy (SMART) Study Group, El-Sadr WM, Lundgren JD, Neaton JD, Gordin F, Abrams D, Arduino RC, Babiker A, Burman W, Clumeck N, Cohen CJ, Cohn D, Cooper D, Darbyshire J, Emery S, Fätkenheuer G, Gazzard B, Grund B, Hoy J, Klingman K, Losso M, Markowitz N, Neuhaus J, Phillips A, Rappoport C. CD4+ count-guided interruption of antiretroviral treatment. N Engl J Med 2006;355: 2283–96.
75.
Zurück zum Zitat Emery S, SMART Study Group and INSIGHT. Major clinical outcomes in patients not treated with antiretroviral therapy at baseline in SMART: a rationale for a trial to examine early treatment of HIV disease [Abstract WEPEB018]. 4th IAS Conference on HIV Pathogenesis, Treatment, and Prevention. Sydney, Australia, 2007. Emery S, SMART Study Group and INSIGHT. Major clinical outcomes in patients not treated with antiretroviral therapy at baseline in SMART: a rationale for a trial to examine early treatment of HIV disease [Abstract WEPEB018]. 4th IAS Conference on HIV Pathogenesis, Treatment, and Prevention. Sydney, Australia, 2007.
76.
Zurück zum Zitat Phillips AN, Gazzard B, Gilson R, Easterbrook P, Johnson M, Walsh J, et al. Rate of AIDS diseases or death in HIV infected antiretroviral therapy-naive individuals with high CD4 cell count. AIDS. 2007;21:1717–2721.CrossRefPubMed Phillips AN, Gazzard B, Gilson R, Easterbrook P, Johnson M, Walsh J, et al. Rate of AIDS diseases or death in HIV infected antiretroviral therapy-naive individuals with high CD4 cell count. AIDS. 2007;21:1717–2721.CrossRefPubMed
77.
Zurück zum Zitat Green H, Gibb DM, Walker AS, Pillay D, Butler K, Candeias F, et al. Paediatric European Network for the Treatment of AIDS (PENTA). Lamivudine/abacavir maintains virological superiority over zidovudine/lamivudine and zidovudine/abacavir beyond 5 years in children. AIDS. 2007;21:947–55.CrossRefPubMed Green H, Gibb DM, Walker AS, Pillay D, Butler K, Candeias F, et al. Paediatric European Network for the Treatment of AIDS (PENTA). Lamivudine/abacavir maintains virological superiority over zidovudine/lamivudine and zidovudine/abacavir beyond 5 years in children. AIDS. 2007;21:947–55.CrossRefPubMed
78.
Zurück zum Zitat DeJesus E, Herrera G, Teofilo E, Gerstoft J, Buendia CB, Brand JD, et al. Abacavir versus zidovudine combined with lamivudine and efavirenz, for the treatment of antiretroviral-naive HIV-infected adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39:1038–46.CrossRefPubMed DeJesus E, Herrera G, Teofilo E, Gerstoft J, Buendia CB, Brand JD, et al. Abacavir versus zidovudine combined with lamivudine and efavirenz, for the treatment of antiretroviral-naive HIV-infected adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39:1038–46.CrossRefPubMed
79.
Zurück zum Zitat Wensing AM, van de Vijver DA, Angarano G, Asjö B, Balotta C, Boeri E, et al. Prevalence of drug-resistant HIV-1 variants in untreated individuals in Europe: implications for clinical management. J Infect Dis. 2005;192:958–66.CrossRefPubMed Wensing AM, van de Vijver DA, Angarano G, Asjö B, Balotta C, Boeri E, et al. Prevalence of drug-resistant HIV-1 variants in untreated individuals in Europe: implications for clinical management. J Infect Dis. 2005;192:958–66.CrossRefPubMed
80.
Zurück zum Zitat Cane P, Chrystie I, Dunn D, Evans B, Geretti AM, Green H, et al. Time trends in primary resistance to HIV drugs in the United Kingdom: multicentre observational study. BMJ. 2005;332:179–80. Cane P, Chrystie I, Dunn D, Evans B, Geretti AM, Green H, et al. Time trends in primary resistance to HIV drugs in the United Kingdom: multicentre observational study. BMJ. 2005;332:179–80.
81.
Zurück zum Zitat Novak RM, Chen L, MacArthur RD, Baxter JD, Huppler Hullsiek K, Peng G, et al. Prevalence of antiretroviral drug resistance mutations in chronically HIV-infected, treatment-naive patients: implications for routine resistance screening before initiation of antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;40:468–74.CrossRefPubMed Novak RM, Chen L, MacArthur RD, Baxter JD, Huppler Hullsiek K, Peng G, et al. Prevalence of antiretroviral drug resistance mutations in chronically HIV-infected, treatment-naive patients: implications for routine resistance screening before initiation of antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;40:468–74.CrossRefPubMed
82.
Zurück zum Zitat Viani RM, Peralta L, Aldrovandi G, Kapogiannis BG, Mitchell R, Spector SA, Lie YS, Weidler JM, Bates MP, Liu N, Wilson CM; Adolescent Medicine Trials Network for HIV/AIDS Interventions. Prevalence of primary HIV drug resistance among recently infected adolescents: a multicenter Adolescent Trials Network study: ATN 029. 13th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections; February 5–8, 2006; Denver, CO. Abstract # 21. Viani RM, Peralta L, Aldrovandi G, Kapogiannis BG, Mitchell R, Spector SA, Lie YS, Weidler JM, Bates MP, Liu N, Wilson CM; Adolescent Medicine Trials Network for HIV/AIDS Interventions. Prevalence of primary HIV drug resistance among recently infected adolescents: a multicenter Adolescent Trials Network study: ATN 029. 13th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections; February 5–8, 2006; Denver, CO. Abstract # 21.
83.
Zurück zum Zitat Paterson DL, Swindells S, Mohr J, Brester M, Vergis EN, Squier C, et al. Adherence to protease inhibitor therapy and outcomes in patients with HIV infection. Ann Intern Med. 2000;133:21–30.PubMed Paterson DL, Swindells S, Mohr J, Brester M, Vergis EN, Squier C, et al. Adherence to protease inhibitor therapy and outcomes in patients with HIV infection. Ann Intern Med. 2000;133:21–30.PubMed
84.
Zurück zum Zitat Van Dyke RB, Lee S, Johnson GM, Wiznia A, Mohan K, Stanley K, et al. Reported adherence as a determinant of response to highly active antiretroviral therapy in children who have human immunodeficiency virus infection. Pediatrics. 2002;109:61.CrossRef Van Dyke RB, Lee S, Johnson GM, Wiznia A, Mohan K, Stanley K, et al. Reported adherence as a determinant of response to highly active antiretroviral therapy in children who have human immunodeficiency virus infection. Pediatrics. 2002;109:61.CrossRef
85.
Zurück zum Zitat Watson DC, Farley JJ. Efficacy of and adherence to highly active antiretroviral therapy in children infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1999;18:682–9.CrossRefPubMed Watson DC, Farley JJ. Efficacy of and adherence to highly active antiretroviral therapy in children infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1999;18:682–9.CrossRefPubMed
86.
Zurück zum Zitat Flynn PM, Rudy BJ, Douglas SD, Lathey J, Spector SA, Martinez J, et al. Virologic and immunologic outcomes after 24 weeks in HIV type 1-infected adolescents receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Infect Dis. 2004;190:271–9.CrossRefPubMed Flynn PM, Rudy BJ, Douglas SD, Lathey J, Spector SA, Martinez J, et al. Virologic and immunologic outcomes after 24 weeks in HIV type 1-infected adolescents receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Infect Dis. 2004;190:271–9.CrossRefPubMed
87.
Zurück zum Zitat Howard AA, Arnsten JH, Lo Y, Vlahov D, Rich JD, Schuman P, et al. A prospective study of adherence and viral load in a large multi-center cohort of HIV-infected women. AIDS. 2002;16:2175–82.CrossRefPubMed Howard AA, Arnsten JH, Lo Y, Vlahov D, Rich JD, Schuman P, et al. A prospective study of adherence and viral load in a large multi-center cohort of HIV-infected women. AIDS. 2002;16:2175–82.CrossRefPubMed
88.
Zurück zum Zitat Murphy DA, Sarr M, Durako SJ, Moscicki AB, Wilson CM, Muenz LR, et al. Adolescent Medicine HIV/AIDS Research Network. Barriers to ART adherence among human immunodeficiency virus-infected adolescents. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2003;157:249–55.CrossRefPubMed Murphy DA, Sarr M, Durako SJ, Moscicki AB, Wilson CM, Muenz LR, et al. Adolescent Medicine HIV/AIDS Research Network. Barriers to ART adherence among human immunodeficiency virus-infected adolescents. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2003;157:249–55.CrossRefPubMed
89.
Zurück zum Zitat Gibb DM on behalf of the PENTA 11 team. Treatment interruption in children with chronic HIV-infection: the results of the paediatric European network for treatment of AIDS (PENTA 11 trial). J Int AIDS Soc. 2008;11, abs 021. Gibb DM on behalf of the PENTA 11 team. Treatment interruption in children with chronic HIV-infection: the results of the paediatric European network for treatment of AIDS (PENTA 11 trial). J Int AIDS Soc. 2008;11, abs 021.
90.
Zurück zum Zitat Ryan M, Griffin S, Chitah B, Walker AS, Mulenga V, Kalolo D, et al. The cost-effectiveness of cotrimoxazole prophylaxis in HIV-infected children in Zambia. AIDS. 2008;22:749–57.CrossRefPubMed Ryan M, Griffin S, Chitah B, Walker AS, Mulenga V, Kalolo D, et al. The cost-effectiveness of cotrimoxazole prophylaxis in HIV-infected children in Zambia. AIDS. 2008;22:749–57.CrossRefPubMed
92.
Zurück zum Zitat Nachman S, Gona P, Dankner W, Weinberg A, Yogev R, Gershon A, et al. The rate of serious bacterial infections among HIV-infected children with immune reconstitution who have discontinued opportunistic infection prophylaxis. Pediatrics. 2005;115:488–94.CrossRef Nachman S, Gona P, Dankner W, Weinberg A, Yogev R, Gershon A, et al. The rate of serious bacterial infections among HIV-infected children with immune reconstitution who have discontinued opportunistic infection prophylaxis. Pediatrics. 2005;115:488–94.CrossRef
93.
Zurück zum Zitat Esposito S, Bojanin J, Porta A, Cesati L, Gualtieri L, Principi N. Discontinuation of secondary prophylaxis for Pneumocystis Pneumonia in human immunodeficiency virus–infected children treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2005;24:1117–20.CrossRefPubMed Esposito S, Bojanin J, Porta A, Cesati L, Gualtieri L, Principi N. Discontinuation of secondary prophylaxis for Pneumocystis Pneumonia in human immunodeficiency virus–infected children treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2005;24:1117–20.CrossRefPubMed
94.
Zurück zum Zitat Furrer H, Egger M, Opravil M, Bernasconi E, Hirschel B, Battegay M, et al. Discontinuation of primary prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in HIV-1-infected adults treated with combination antiretroviral therapy. Swiss HIV Cohort Study. N Engl J Med. 1999;340:1301–6.CrossRefPubMed Furrer H, Egger M, Opravil M, Bernasconi E, Hirschel B, Battegay M, et al. Discontinuation of primary prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in HIV-1-infected adults treated with combination antiretroviral therapy. Swiss HIV Cohort Study. N Engl J Med. 1999;340:1301–6.CrossRefPubMed
95.
Zurück zum Zitat Ledergerber B, Mocroft A, Reiss P, Furrer H, Kirk O, Bickel M, et al. Discontinuation of secondary prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with HIV infection who have a response to antiretroviral therapy. Eight European Study Groups. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:168–74.CrossRefPubMed Ledergerber B, Mocroft A, Reiss P, Furrer H, Kirk O, Bickel M, et al. Discontinuation of secondary prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with HIV infection who have a response to antiretroviral therapy. Eight European Study Groups. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:168–74.CrossRefPubMed
96.
Zurück zum Zitat Dankner WM, Lindsey JC, Levin MJ, Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol Teams 051, 128, 138, 144, 152, 179, 190, 220, 240, 245, 254, 300 and 327. Correlates of opportunistic infections in children infected with the human immunodeficiency virus managed before highly active antiretroviral therapy. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2001;20:40–8.CrossRefPubMed Dankner WM, Lindsey JC, Levin MJ, Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol Teams 051, 128, 138, 144, 152, 179, 190, 220, 240, 245, 254, 300 and 327. Correlates of opportunistic infections in children infected with the human immunodeficiency virus managed before highly active antiretroviral therapy. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2001;20:40–8.CrossRefPubMed
97.
Zurück zum Zitat The National Institute of Child Health and Human Developments Intravenous Immunoglobulin Study Group. Intravenous immune globulin for the prevention of bacterial infections in children with symptomatic human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med. 1991;325:73–80. The National Institute of Child Health and Human Developments Intravenous Immunoglobulin Study Group. Intravenous immune globulin for the prevention of bacterial infections in children with symptomatic human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med. 1991;325:73–80.
98.
Zurück zum Zitat Spector SA, Gelber RD, McGrath N, Wara D, Barzilai A, Abrams E, et al. A controlled trial of intravenous immune globulin for the prevention of serious bacterial infections in children receiving zidovudine for advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group. N Engl J Med. 1994;331:1181–7.CrossRefPubMed Spector SA, Gelber RD, McGrath N, Wara D, Barzilai A, Abrams E, et al. A controlled trial of intravenous immune globulin for the prevention of serious bacterial infections in children receiving zidovudine for advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group. N Engl J Med. 1994;331:1181–7.CrossRefPubMed
99.
Zurück zum Zitat Moss WJ, Clements CJ, Halsey NA. Immunization of children, at risk of infection with human immunodeficiency virus. Bull World Health Organ. 2003;81:61–70.PubMed Moss WJ, Clements CJ, Halsey NA. Immunization of children, at risk of infection with human immunodeficiency virus. Bull World Health Organ. 2003;81:61–70.PubMed
100.
Zurück zum Zitat Traggiai E, Puzone R, Lanzavecchia A. Antigen dependent and independent mechanisms that sustain serum antibody levels. Vaccine. 2003;21:S35–7.CrossRefPubMed Traggiai E, Puzone R, Lanzavecchia A. Antigen dependent and independent mechanisms that sustain serum antibody levels. Vaccine. 2003;21:S35–7.CrossRefPubMed
101.
Zurück zum Zitat Tanzi E, Esposito S, Bojanin J, Amendola A, Trabattoni D, Pariani E, et al. Immunogenicity and effect of a virosomal influenza vaccine on viral replication and T-cell activation in HIV-infected children receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Med Virol. 2006;78:440–5.CrossRefPubMed Tanzi E, Esposito S, Bojanin J, Amendola A, Trabattoni D, Pariani E, et al. Immunogenicity and effect of a virosomal influenza vaccine on viral replication and T-cell activation in HIV-infected children receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Med Virol. 2006;78:440–5.CrossRefPubMed
102.
Zurück zum Zitat Moss WJ, Clements CJ, Halsey NA. Immunization of children, at risk of infection with human immunodeficiency virus. Bull World Health Organ. 2003;81:61–70.PubMed Moss WJ, Clements CJ, Halsey NA. Immunization of children, at risk of infection with human immunodeficiency virus. Bull World Health Organ. 2003;81:61–70.PubMed
103.
Zurück zum Zitat European Paediatric Lipodystrophy Group. Antiretroviral therapy, fat redistribution and hyperlipidaemia in HIV-infected children in Europe. AIDS. 2004;18:1443–51.CrossRef European Paediatric Lipodystrophy Group. Antiretroviral therapy, fat redistribution and hyperlipidaemia in HIV-infected children in Europe. AIDS. 2004;18:1443–51.CrossRef
104.
Zurück zum Zitat DAD Study Group, Friis-Møller N, Reiss P, Sabin CA, Weber R, Monforte A, El-Sadr W, Thiébaut R, De Wit S, Kirk O, Fontas E, Law MG, Phillips A, Lundgren JD. Class of antiretroviral drugs and the risk of myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 2007;356:1723–35. DAD Study Group, Friis-Møller N, Reiss P, Sabin CA, Weber R, Monforte A, El-Sadr W, Thiébaut R, De Wit S, Kirk O, Fontas E, Law MG, Phillips A, Lundgren JD. Class of antiretroviral drugs and the risk of myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 2007;356:1723–35.
105.
Zurück zum Zitat Van Dyke RB, Wang L, Williams PL, Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group 219C Team. Toxicities associated with dual nucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitor regimens in HIV-infected children. J Infect Dis. 2008;198:1599–608.CrossRefPubMed Van Dyke RB, Wang L, Williams PL, Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group 219C Team. Toxicities associated with dual nucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitor regimens in HIV-infected children. J Infect Dis. 2008;198:1599–608.CrossRefPubMed
106.
Zurück zum Zitat Vigano A, Giacomet V, Pattarino G, Fasan S, Zuccotti G, Brambilla P. Metabolic complications of HIV infection and its therapy in children. Futur HIV Therapy. 2007;1:181–90.CrossRef Vigano A, Giacomet V, Pattarino G, Fasan S, Zuccotti G, Brambilla P. Metabolic complications of HIV infection and its therapy in children. Futur HIV Therapy. 2007;1:181–90.CrossRef
107.
Zurück zum Zitat Rietschel P, Hadigan C, Corcoran C, Stanley T, Neubauer G, Gertner J, et al. Assessment of growth hormone dynamics in human immunodeficiency virus-related lipodystrophy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90:4075–80.CrossRef Rietschel P, Hadigan C, Corcoran C, Stanley T, Neubauer G, Gertner J, et al. Assessment of growth hormone dynamics in human immunodeficiency virus-related lipodystrophy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90:4075–80.CrossRef
108.
Zurück zum Zitat Viganò A, Brambilla P, Cafarelli L, Giacomet V, Borgonovo S, Zamproni I, et al. Normalization of fat accrual in lipoatrophic, HIV-infected children switched from stavudine to tenofovir and from protease inhibitor to efavirenz. Antivir Ther. 2007;12:297–302.PubMed Viganò A, Brambilla P, Cafarelli L, Giacomet V, Borgonovo S, Zamproni I, et al. Normalization of fat accrual in lipoatrophic, HIV-infected children switched from stavudine to tenofovir and from protease inhibitor to efavirenz. Antivir Ther. 2007;12:297–302.PubMed
109.
Zurück zum Zitat Arpadi SM, Cuff PA, Horlick M, Wang J, Kotler DP. Lipodystrophy in HIV-infected children is associated with high viral load and low CD4+-lymphocyte count and CD4+-lymphocyte percentage at baseline and use of protease inhibitors and stavudine. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2001;27:30–4.PubMed Arpadi SM, Cuff PA, Horlick M, Wang J, Kotler DP. Lipodystrophy in HIV-infected children is associated with high viral load and low CD4+-lymphocyte count and CD4+-lymphocyte percentage at baseline and use of protease inhibitors and stavudine. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2001;27:30–4.PubMed
110.
Zurück zum Zitat Viganò A, Aldrovandi GM, Giacomet V, Merlo M, Martelli L, Beretta S, et al. Improvement in dyslipidaemia after switching stavudine to tenofovir and replacing protease inhibitors with efavirenz in HIV-infected children. Antivir Ther. 2005;10:917–24.PubMed Viganò A, Aldrovandi GM, Giacomet V, Merlo M, Martelli L, Beretta S, et al. Improvement in dyslipidaemia after switching stavudine to tenofovir and replacing protease inhibitors with efavirenz in HIV-infected children. Antivir Ther. 2005;10:917–24.PubMed
111.
Zurück zum Zitat Charakida M, Tousoulis D, Skoumas I, Pitsavos C, Vasiliadou C, Stefanadi E, et al. Inflammatory and thrombotic processes are associated with vascular dysfunction in children with familial hypercholesterolemia. Atherosclerosis. 2009;204:532–7.CrossRefPubMed Charakida M, Tousoulis D, Skoumas I, Pitsavos C, Vasiliadou C, Stefanadi E, et al. Inflammatory and thrombotic processes are associated with vascular dysfunction in children with familial hypercholesterolemia. Atherosclerosis. 2009;204:532–7.CrossRefPubMed
112.
Zurück zum Zitat Viganò A, Cerini C, Meroni L, Giacomet V, Fabiano V et al. Long term HIV infection is associated with increased carotid intima media thickness in HIV infected adolescents. 16th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Montreal 2009, Abstract 915. Viganò A, Cerini C, Meroni L, Giacomet V, Fabiano V et al. Long term HIV infection is associated with increased carotid intima media thickness in HIV infected adolescents. 16th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Montreal 2009, Abstract 915.
113.
Zurück zum Zitat Lester P, Chesney M, Cooke M, Weiss R, Whalley P, Perez B, et al. When the time comes to talk about HIV: factors associated with diagnostic disclosure and emotional distress in HIV-infected children. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2002;3:309–17. Lester P, Chesney M, Cooke M, Weiss R, Whalley P, Perez B, et al. When the time comes to talk about HIV: factors associated with diagnostic disclosure and emotional distress in HIV-infected children. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2002;3:309–17.
114.
Zurück zum Zitat Instone SL. Perceptions of children with HIV infection when not told for so long: implications for diagnosis disclosure. J Pediatr Health Care. 2000;14:235–43.PubMed Instone SL. Perceptions of children with HIV infection when not told for so long: implications for diagnosis disclosure. J Pediatr Health Care. 2000;14:235–43.PubMed
115.
Zurück zum Zitat Bachanas PJ, Kullgren KA, Schwartz KS, Lanier B, McDaniel JS, Smith J, et al. Predictors of psychological adjustment in school-age children infected with HIV. J Pediatr Psychol. 2001;26:343–52.CrossRefPubMed Bachanas PJ, Kullgren KA, Schwartz KS, Lanier B, McDaniel JS, Smith J, et al. Predictors of psychological adjustment in school-age children infected with HIV. J Pediatr Psychol. 2001;26:343–52.CrossRefPubMed
116.
Zurück zum Zitat Mellins CA, Brackis-Cott E, Dolezal C, Abrams EJ. Psychiatric disorders in youth with perinatally acquired human immunodeficiency virus infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2006;25:432–7.CrossRefPubMed Mellins CA, Brackis-Cott E, Dolezal C, Abrams EJ. Psychiatric disorders in youth with perinatally acquired human immunodeficiency virus infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2006;25:432–7.CrossRefPubMed
117.
Zurück zum Zitat Belzer ME, Fuchs DN, Luftman GS, Tucker DJ. Antiretroviral adherence issues among HIV-positive adolescents and young adults. J Adolesc Health. 1999;25:316–9.CrossRefPubMed Belzer ME, Fuchs DN, Luftman GS, Tucker DJ. Antiretroviral adherence issues among HIV-positive adolescents and young adults. J Adolesc Health. 1999;25:316–9.CrossRefPubMed
118.
Zurück zum Zitat Giacomet V, Albano F, Starace F, de Franciscis A, Giaquinto C, Gattinara GC, et al. Adherence to antiretroviral therapy and its determinants in children with human immunodeficiency virus infection: a multicentre, national study. Acta Paediatr. 2003;92:1398–402.CrossRefPubMed Giacomet V, Albano F, Starace F, de Franciscis A, Giaquinto C, Gattinara GC, et al. Adherence to antiretroviral therapy and its determinants in children with human immunodeficiency virus infection: a multicentre, national study. Acta Paediatr. 2003;92:1398–402.CrossRefPubMed
Metadaten
Titel
Italian consensus statement on paediatric HIV infection
verfasst von
C. Giaquinto
M. Penazzato
R. Rosso
S. Bernardi
O. Rampon
P. Nasta
A. Ammassari
A. Antinori
R. Badolato
G. Castelli Gattinara
A. d’Arminio Monforte
M. De Martino
A. De Rossi
P. Di Gregorio
S. Esposito
F. Fatuzzo
S. Fiore
A. Franco
C. Gabiano
L. Galli
O. Genovese
V. Giacomet
A. Giannattasio
C. Gotta
A. Guarino
A. Martino
F. Mazzotta
N. Principi
M. B. Regazzi
P. Rossi
R. Russo
M. Saitta
F. Salvini
S. Trotta
A. Viganò
G. Zuccotti
G. Carosi
The Italian Paediatric HIV Infection Working Group
Publikationsdatum
01.08.2010
Verlag
Urban and Vogel
Erschienen in
Infection / Ausgabe 4/2010
Print ISSN: 0300-8126
Elektronische ISSN: 1439-0973
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s15010-010-0020-5

Weitere Artikel der Ausgabe 4/2010

Infection 4/2010 Zur Ausgabe

Leitlinien kompakt für die Innere Medizin

Mit medbee Pocketcards sicher entscheiden.

Seit 2022 gehört die medbee GmbH zum Springer Medizin Verlag

Notfall-TEP der Hüfte ist auch bei 90-Jährigen machbar

26.04.2024 Hüft-TEP Nachrichten

Ob bei einer Notfalloperation nach Schenkelhalsfraktur eine Hemiarthroplastik oder eine totale Endoprothese (TEP) eingebaut wird, sollte nicht allein vom Alter der Patientinnen und Patienten abhängen. Auch über 90-Jährige können von der TEP profitieren.

Niedriger diastolischer Blutdruck erhöht Risiko für schwere kardiovaskuläre Komplikationen

25.04.2024 Hypotonie Nachrichten

Wenn unter einer medikamentösen Hochdrucktherapie der diastolische Blutdruck in den Keller geht, steigt das Risiko für schwere kardiovaskuläre Ereignisse: Darauf deutet eine Sekundäranalyse der SPRINT-Studie hin.

Bei schweren Reaktionen auf Insektenstiche empfiehlt sich eine spezifische Immuntherapie

Insektenstiche sind bei Erwachsenen die häufigsten Auslöser einer Anaphylaxie. Einen wirksamen Schutz vor schweren anaphylaktischen Reaktionen bietet die allergenspezifische Immuntherapie. Jedoch kommt sie noch viel zu selten zum Einsatz.

Therapiestart mit Blutdrucksenkern erhöht Frakturrisiko

25.04.2024 Hypertonie Nachrichten

Beginnen ältere Männer im Pflegeheim eine Antihypertensiva-Therapie, dann ist die Frakturrate in den folgenden 30 Tagen mehr als verdoppelt. Besonders häufig stürzen Demenzkranke und Männer, die erstmals Blutdrucksenker nehmen. Dafür spricht eine Analyse unter US-Veteranen.

Update Innere Medizin

Bestellen Sie unseren Fach-Newsletter und bleiben Sie gut informiert.