Background
Methods
Participants
Attitudes towards gambling
Females | Males | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2011 Mean (95% CI) | 2015 Mean (95% CI) | F(df)
[p; η
2] | 2011 Mean (95% CI) | 2015 Mean (95% CI) | F(df)
[p; η
2] | |
All | 21.44 (21.18–21.69) | 22.93 (22.71–23.16) | 73.99(1, 3978)
[.001; .018] | 23.97 (23.72–24.23) | 25.22 (24.99–25.45) | 50.81(1, 4029)
[.001; .012] |
Age | ||||||
15–17 years | 20.87 (19.66–22.08) | 21.32 (20.32–22.33) | 0.33(1, 164)
[.564; .000] | 23.53 (22.07–24.98) | 23.32 (22.14–24.50) | 0.05(1, 154)
[.824; .000] |
18–24 years | 21.74 (21.06–22.43) | 22.55 (21.95–23.16) | 3.07(1, 458)
[.081; .007] | 24.30 (23.64–24.95) | 25.86 (25.23–26.49) | 11.47(1, 514)
[.001; .021] |
25–34 years | 22.67 (22.07–23.27) | 24.28 (23.74–24.82) | 15.54 (1, 664)
[≤.001; .023] | 25.38 (24.79–25.97) | 26.40 (25.86–26.93) | 6.25(1, 674)
[.013; .009] |
35–44 years | 21.38 (20.75–22.01) | 23.53 (22.92–24.15) | 22.57 (1, 631)
[≤.001; .035] | 24.52 (23.91–25.13) | 25.82 (25.27–26.36) | 9.68(1, 652)
[.002; .014] |
45–54 years | 21.85 (21.24–22.47) | 23.30 (22.73–23.87) | 11.42 (1, 678)
[.001; .017] | 24.38 (23.82–24.94) | 25.21 (24.65–25.77) | 4.13(1, 718)
[.042; .006] |
55–64 years | 20.70 (20.13–21.28) | 22.41 (21.90–22.93) | 19.02 (1, 789)
[≤.001; .024] | 22.56 (21.98–23.15) | 24.77 (24.22–25.32) | 28.83 (1, 773)
[≤.001; .035] |
65–74 years | 20.05 (19.32–20.78) | 22.02 (21.48–22.55) | 17.94 (1, 578)
[≤.001; .030] | 22.44 (21.67–23.21) | 23.85 (23.26–24.44) | 8.06(1, 530)
[.005; .015] |
Gambling participation
Gambling-related harms
Females | Males | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Source | 2011 | 2015 |
p
|
ϕ
| 2011 | 2015 |
p
|
ϕ
| |
SOGS #4 | 1. Gamble more than you intended to | 6.7 | 10.1 | ≤.001 | .060 | 15.2 | 17.0 | .123 | .024 |
PGSI #1 / SOGS #1 | 2. Go back another day to win back money (chasing) | 5.1 | 5.1 | .944 | .001 | 12.0 | 10.1 | .035 | −.033 |
PGSI #9 / SOGS #6 | 3. Felt guilty | 2.8 | 6.4 | ≤.001 | .085 | 7.0 | 7.4 | .637 | .007 |
PGSI #4 | 4. Need to gamble with larger amounts of money to maintain excitement | 1.4 | 1.5 | .898 | .003 | 4.8 | 4.8 | .943 | .001 |
PGSI #7 / SOGS #5 | 5. People criticized your gambling | 1.4 | 1.2 | .496 | −.011 | 3.6 | 3.3 | .616 | −.008 |
PGSI #2 / SOGS #3 | 6. Feel you have a problem | 0.8 | 1.6 | .024 | .035 | 3.4 | 4.4 | .117 | .025 |
PGSI #3 | 7. Betting more than can afford to lose | 1.3 | 1.7 | .315 | .016 | 4.2 | 4.2 | 1.000 | .000 |
SOGS #7 | 8. Felt like you would like to stop gambling but didn’t think you could | 1.2 | 2.4 | .004 | .044 | 2.1 | 2.4 | .535 | .011 |
SOGS #2 | 9. Claimed to be winning money gambling but weren’t really | 0.9 | 0.4 | .061 | −.030 | 3.8 | 1.5 | ≤.001 | .074 |
SOGS #9 | 10. Money arguments centred on gambling | 0.8 | 1.2 | .173 | .022 | 1.3 | 1.5 | .975 | .005 |
PGSI #6 | 11. Gambling causing health problems | 0.5 | 0.4 | .667 | −.007 | 1.6 | 2.0 | .427 | .014 |
PGSI #5 / SOGS #12-20 | 12. Borrowing money or selling something to finance gambling | 0.4 | 0.5 | .819 | .007 | 1.0 | 0.7 | .185 | −.020 |
PGSI #8 | 13. Gambling causing financial problems | 0.2 | 0.4 | .588 | .010 | 1.2 | 1.1 | .772 | .006 |
SOGS #11 | 14. Lost time from work or school | 0.4 | 0.4 | 1.000 | .000 | 0.8 | 0.9 | 1.000 | .002 |
SOGS #8 | 15. Hidden betting slips | 0.2 | 0.7 | .046 | .033 | 0.7 | 0.8 | .604 | .009 |
SOGS #10 | 16. Borrowed money and not paid them back | 0.2 | 0.5 | .221 | .020 | 0.3 | 0.6 | .249 | .021 |
Data analysis
Results
Attitudes towards gambling
Past-year gambling participation
15–17 | 18–24 | 25–34 | 35–44 | 45–54 | 55–64 | 65–74 | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2011 (n = 64) | 2015 (n = 83) | 2011 (n = 228) | 2015 (n = 172) | 2011 (n = 278) | 2015 (n = 328) | 2011 (n = 335) | 2015 (n = 305) | 2011 (n = 447) | 2015 (n = 359) | 2011 (n = 564) | 2015 (n = 491) | 2011 (n = 451) | 2015 (n = 472) | |
Gambling frequency | ||||||||||||||
No gambling | 66.7 ± 11.6 | 71.9 ± 9.7 | 32.2 ± 6.1 | 27.0 ± 6.6 | 21.0 ± 4.8 | 21.6 ± 4.5 | 24.4 ± 4.6 | 24.1 ± 4.8 | 19.7 ± 3.7 | 22.0 ± 4.3 | 23.8 ± 3.5 | 18.3 ± 3.4 | 36.2 ± 4.4 | 26.4 ± 4.0 |
Less than monthly | 25.9 ± 10.7 | 20.8 ± 8.7 | 33.5 ± 6.1 | 42.2 ± 7.4 | 39.3 ± 5.7 | 39.3 ± 5.3 | 35.1 ± 5.1 | 36.7 ± 5.4 | 27.8 ± 4.2 | 30.6 ± 4.8 | 20.3 ± 3.3 | 25.2 ± 3.8 | 16.4 ± 3.4 | 18.5 ± 3.5 |
1–3 times/month | 4.9 ± 5.3 | 5.2 ± 4.8 | 23.4 ± 5.5 | 19.3 ± 5.9 | 24.9 ± 5.1 | 24.4 ± 4.7 | 20.9 ± 4.4 | 19.6 ± 4.5 | 19.5 ± 3.7 | 19.9 ± 4.1 | 19.6 ± 3.3 | 17.9 ± 3.4 | 9.3 ± 2.7 | 14.4 ± 3.2 |
Once a week | 1.2 ± 2.7 | 1.0 ± 2.1 | 6.7 ± 3.3 | 8.6 ± 4.2 | 11.7 ± 3.8 | 11.5 ± 3.5 | 17.4 ± 4.1 | 15.7 ± 4.1 | 27.0 ± 4.1 | 22.6 ± 4.4 | 29.4 ± 3.8 | 32.0 ± 4.1 | 32.8 ± 4.3 | 31.3 ± 4.2 |
Several times a week | 1.2 ± 2.7 | 1.0 ± 2.1 | 4.2 ± 2.6 | 2.9 ± 2.5 | 3.0 ± 2.0 | 3.1 ± 1.9 | 2.2 ± 1.6 | 3.9 ± 2.2 | 5.9 ± 2.2 | 4.8 ± 2.2 | 6.9 ± 2.1 | 6.6 ± 2.2 | 5.2 ± 2.1 | 9.4 ± 2.6 |
Significance |
X
2
= .699, df = 4, p = .952, ϕ = .063 |
X
2
= 5.677, df = 4, p = .225, ϕ = .108 |
X
2
= .056, df = 4, p = 1.000, ϕ = .009 |
X
2
= 2.120, df = 4, p = .714, ϕ = .056 |
X
2
= 2.894, df = 4, p = .576, ϕ = .062 |
X
2
= 6.065, df = 4, p = .194, ϕ = .084 |
X
2
= 12.343, df = 4, p = .015, ϕ = .0.138 | |||||||
No gambling | .513 | .232 | .853 | .928 | .470 | .053 | .009 | |||||||
Less than monthly | .476 | .050 | 1.000 | .688 | .420 | .104 | .531 | |||||||
1-3 times/month | 1.000 | .268 | .930 | .701 | .926 | .541 | .054 | |||||||
Once a week | 1.000 | .495 | 1.000 | .603 | .174 | .416 | .734 | |||||||
Several times a week | 1.000 | .469 | 1.000 | .267 | .520 | .893 | .052 | |||||||
Online gambling | ||||||||||||||
Yes | 0 | 2.1 | 14.4 | 16.3 | 19.9 | 26.3 | 16.9 | 23.2 | 19.2 | 17.0 | 12.5 | 15.2 | 4.0 | 9.4 |
Significance |
p = .549, ϕ = .084 |
p = .603, ϕ = .027 |
p = .056, ϕ = .076 |
p = .051, ϕ = .079 |
p = .499, ϕ = − .028 |
p = .315, ϕ = .038 |
p = .016, ϕ = .099 | |||||||
Gambling harmsa
| ||||||||||||||
No gambling | 66.7 ± 11.6 | 71.9 ± 9.7 | 32.2 ± 6.1 | 27.0 ± 6.6 | 21.0 ± 4.8 | 21.6 ± 4.5 | 24.4 ± 4.6 | 24.1 ± 4.8 | 19.7 ± 3.7 | 22.0 ± 4.3 | 23.8 ± 3.5 | 18.3 ± 3.4 | 36.2 ± 4.4 | 26.4 ± 4.0 |
No harms | 18.5 ± 9.5 | 17.5 ± 8.2 | 46.2 ± 6.5 | 42.9 ± 7.4 | 64.0 ± 5.6 | 58.4 ± 5.3 | 65.6 ± 5.1 | 65.1 ± 5.4 | 69.5 ± 4.3 | 62.3 ± 5.0 | 61.5 ± 4.0 | 64.5 ± 4.2 | 54.1 | 59.7 |
One harm | 9.9 ± 7.3 | 3.1 ± 3.7 | 13.0 ± 4.4 | 14.3 ± 5.2 | 10.8 ± 3.7 | 13.8 ± 3.7 | 8.2 ± 2.9 | 6.7 ± 2.8 | 7.6 ± 2.5 | 8.1 ± 2.8 | 9.5 ± 2.4 | 9.9 ± 2.6 | 7.1 | 8.1 |
≥2 harms | 6.1 ± 5.9 | 7.2 ± 5.6 | 8.8 ± 3.7 | 15.1 ± 5.4 | 4.5 ± 2.4 | 5.9 ± 2.6 | 1.9 ± 1.5 | 4.2 ± 2.3 | 3.0 ± 1.6 | 7.3 ± 2.7 | 5.1 ± 1.8 | 6.8 ± 2.2 | 3.0 | 6.0 |
Significance |
X
2
= 3.481, df = 3, p = .323, ϕ = .140 |
X
2
= 5.586, df = 3, p = .134, ϕ = .108 |
X
2
= 2.743, df = 3, p = .433, ϕ = .063 |
X
2
= 3.373, df = 3, p = .338, ϕ = .071 |
X
2
= 8.712, df = 3, p = .033, ϕ = .109 |
X
2
= 4.444, df = 3, p = .217, ϕ = .072 |
X
2
= 9.031, df = 3, p = .029, ϕ = .118 | |||||||
No gambling | .513 | .232 | .853 | .928 | .470 | .053 | .009 | |||||||
No harms | 1.000 | .465 | .138 | .935 | .044 | .396 | .171 | |||||||
One harm | .115 | .693 | .248 | .466 | .891 | .909 | .657 | |||||||
≥2 harms | 1.000 | .036 | .494 | .119 | .012 | .319 | .092 |
15–17 | 18–24 | 25–34 | 35–44 | 45–54 | 55–64 | 65–74 | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2011 (n = 75) | 2015 (n = 82) | 2011 (n = 233) | 2015 (n = 227) | 2011 (n = 252) | 2015 (n = 306) | 2011 (n = 253) | 2015 (n = 368) | 2011 (n = 369) | 2015 (n = 415) | 2011 (n = 512) | 2015 (n = 480) | 2011 (n = 423) | 2015 (n = 427) | |
Gambling frequency | ||||||||||||||
No gambling | 40.0 ± 11.1 | 52.3 ± 10.8 | 18.7 ± 5.0 | 11.5 ± 4.2 | 11.5 ± 3.9 | 11.0 ± 3.5 | 13.9 ± 4.3 | 10.2 ± 3.1 | 14.0 ± 3.5 | 11.0 ± 3.0 | 17.5 ± 3.3 | 15.9 ± 3.3 | 24.8 ± 4.1 | 21.4 ± 3.9 |
Less than monthly | 12.5 ± 7.5 | 18.6 ± 8.4 | 16.0 ± 4.7 | 16.7 ± 4.9 | 17.8 ± 4.7 | 20.4 ± 4.5 | 14.8 ± 4.4 | 20.2 ± 4.1 | 15.1 ± 3.7 | 16.4 ± 3.6 | 11.6 ± 2.8 | 12.0 ± 2.9 | 12.4 ± 3.1 | 10.6 ± 2.9 |
1-3 times/month | 11.3 ± 7.2 | 20.9 ± 8.8 | 33.5 ± 6.1 | 39.8 ± 6.4 | 30.5 ± 5.7 | 34.7 ± 5.3 | 26.5 ± 5.5 | 30.9 ± 4.7 | 17.8 ± 3.9 | 27.9 ± 4.3 | 17.5 ± 3.3 | 16.6 ± 3.3 | 12.0 ± 3.1 | 17.0 ± 3.6 |
Once a week | 20.0 ± 9.1 | 7.0 ± 5.5 | 20.2 ± 5.2 | 19.3 ± 5.1 | 26.7 ± 5.5 | 24.2 ± 4.8 | 29.7 ± 5.6 | 29.6 ± 4.7 | 36.1 ± 4.9 | 33.5 ± 4.5 | 38.4 ± 4.2 | 37.1 ± 4.3 | 38.0 ± 4.63 | 34.9 ± 4.5 |
Several times a week | 16.3 ± 8.4 | 1.2 ± 2.4 | 11.7 ± 4.1 | 12.6 ± 4.3 | 13.5 ± 4.2 | 9.7 ± 3.3 | 15.1 ± 4.4 | 9.1± | 17.0 ± 3.8 | 11.3 ± 3.1 | 15.0 ± 3.1 | 18.4 ± 3.5 | 12.8 ± 3.2 | 16.1 ± 3.5 |
Significance |
X
2
= 21. 221, df = 4, p ≤ .001, ϕ = .358 |
X
2
= 6.109, df = 4, p = .191, ϕ = .108 |
X
2
= 4.396, df = 4, p = .355, ϕ = .078 |
X
2
= 10.922, df = 4, p = .027, ϕ = .127 |
X
2
= 14.845, df = 4, p = .005, ϕ = .140 |
X
2
= 1.996, df = 4, p = .736, ϕ = .049 |
X
2
= 4.874, df = 4, p = .300, ϕ = .092 | |||||||
No gambling | .122 | .028 | .906 | .156 | .579 | .363 | .066 | |||||||
Less than monthly | .292 | .906 | .395 | .070 | .691 | .915 | .505 | |||||||
1-3 times/month | .098 | .148 | .234 | .204 | ≤.001 | .783 | .121 | |||||||
Once a week | .021 | .827 | .442 | 1.000 | .447 | .722 | .427 | |||||||
Several times a week | p ≤ .001 | .790 | .129 | .018 | .028 | .197 | .339 | |||||||
Online gambling | ||||||||||||||
Yes | 12.7 | 5.9 | 29.8 | 33.1 | 47.1 | 48.2 | 36.2 | 40.7 | 26.9 | 32.5 | 13.6 | 21.9 | 8.5 | 10.8 |
Significance |
p = .239, ϕ = − .119 |
p = .448, ϕ = .035 |
p = .821, ϕ = .011 |
p = .235, ϕ = .046 |
p = .109, ϕ = .061 |
p = .003, ϕ = .107 |
p = .385, ϕ = .039 | |||||||
Gambling harmsa
| ||||||||||||||
No gambling | 40.0 ± 11.1 | 52.9 ± 10.8 | 18.7 ± 5.0 | 11.5 ± 4.2 | 11.5 ± 3.9 | 11.0 ± 3.5 | 13.8 ± 4.3 | 10.2 ± 3.1 | 14.0 ± 3.5 | 11.0 ± 3.0 | 17.4 ± 3.3 | 15.9 ± 3.3 | 24.8 ± 4.1 | 21.4 ± 3.9 |
No harms | 21.0 ± 9.2 | 30.6 ± 10.0 | 33.5 ± 6.1 | 42.2 ± 6.4 | 54.2 ± 6.2 | 50.7 ± 5.6 | 63.0 ± 6.0 | 60.8 ± 5.0 | 60.9 ± 5.0 | 65.4 ± 4.6 | 61.2 ± 4.2 | 60.4 ± 2.4 | 60.3 ± 4.7 | 63.6 ± 4.6 |
One harm | 12.5 ± 7.5 | 4.7 ± 4.6 | 24.9 ± 5.6 | 23.8 ± 5.5 | 15.5 ± 4.5 | 19.4 ± 4.4 | 11.9 ± 4.0 | 15.6 ± 3.7 | 13.0 ± 3.4 | 15.1 ± 3.4 | 14.0 ± 3.0 | 14.7 ± 3.2 | 10.2 ± 2.9 | 7.3 ± 2.5 |
≥2 harms | 26.3 ± 10.0 | 10.6 ± 6.7 | 23.0 ± 5.4 | 22.2 ± 5.4 | 18.9 ± 4.8 | 18.8 ± 4.4 | 11.3 ± 3.9 | 13.3 ± 3.5 | 11.9 ± 3.3 | 8.5 ± 2.7 | 7.6 ± 2.3 | 8.8 ± 2.5 | 5.1 ± 2.1 | 7.3 ± 2.5 |
Significance |
X
2
= 11.359, df = 3, p = .010, ϕ = .263 |
X
2
= 7.317, df = 3, p = .062, ϕ = .118 |
X
2
= 2.034, df = 3, p = .565, ϕ = .053 |
X
2
= 4.077, df = 3, p = .253, ϕ = .077 |
X
2
= 4.780, df = 3, p = .189, ϕ = .079 |
X
2
= 0.732, df = 3, p = .866, ϕ = .030 |
X
2
= 3.378, df = 3, p = .337, ϕ = .077 | |||||||
No gambling | .122 | .028 | .906 | .156 | .579 | .364 | .072 | |||||||
No harms | .215 | .039 | .371 | .580 | .229 | .832 | .431 | |||||||
One harm | .095 | .839 | .171 | .183 | .406 | .844 | .227 | |||||||
≥2 harms | .014 | .917 | 1.000 | .484 | .120 | .615 | .387 |