Body weight - SNPs in haploblocks 1 and 2
Rs266729 and rs1501299 are the most extensively studied of the SNPs associating with body weight and BMI in DPS. Earlier studies report associations to various obesity related phenotypes for rs266729 [
15,
16,
29] and for rs1501299 [
14,
16,
17].
We found that rs266729 G allele carriers had higher weight compared with individuals with CC genotype at baseline and a similar trend was seen during the 4-year follow-up, especially in women. Significant association that were seen more often in women than men may be explained by larger number of female subjects in the DPS. In contrast to our results, rs266729 C is a risk allele for obesity related phenotypes in most study populations [
15,
16]. Genotype differences according to rs1501299 were seen in baseline weight as well as in 4-year follow-up. In agreement with this, the G allele was associated with obesity related phenotypes in some studies [
14], but the T allele in others [
16,
17].
To our knowledge, no previous data concerning associations of intronic SNPs rs16861205 and rs3821799, and rs6773957, located in the 3'UTR, with obesity related phenotypes exists. The strongest association was observed for rs3821799 and it remained significant also in multiple SNP analyses. During the 4-year follow-up, the genotype differences remained constant in both study groups. Thus, individuals with different ADIPOQ genotypes did not respond differently to the lifestyle modification regarding weight change.
Type 2 diabetes - rs266729, rs2241766 and rs2082940
We found significantly increased conversion rates from IGT to T2DM for subjects homozygous for the rs266729 C allele. The G allele, associated with higher body weight, associated with lower T2DM risk in statistical models with or without adjustment for obesity related covariates. It seems therefore that the effect of
ADIPOQ variation on T2DM risk is independent of its effect on body weight. According to previous studies rs266729 G allele frequently associates with increased risk of T2DM [
15,
23] and insulin resistance [
16,
44]. On the other hand, the C allele was associated with increased risk of T2DM in a German study population [
25] and with lower clamp-derived insulin sensitivity in a cohort of Europid adolescents and their parents [
26].
In addition, the rare minor alleles of rs2241766 and rs2082940 associated with conversion to T2DM in DPS. Rs2241766 is one of the most extensively studied
ADIPOQ SNPs. Consistent with our results, the G allele associated with T2DM in cross-sectional studies [
21], and also with T2DM risk [
24] and hyperglycemia [
19,
20] in prospective studies. On the contrary, others have reported that the T allele associated with elevated insulin/glucose values and insulin resistance [
14]. To our knowledge, no previous studies have found association between T2DM and rs2082940, which is in high LD with rs2241766 (r
2 = 0.872). It is located in the 3' UTR and its functional role is currently unknown. In multiple SNP analyses rs266729 remained significant predictor of T2DM risk. Thus at least one genetic signal affecting T2DM risk exists in the
ADIPOQ locus. When the study groups were analysed separately, SNPs associated with T2DM similarly in both study groups. Thus, the effect of lifestyle intervention on T2DM was not modified by the
ADIPOQ SNPs studied.
Serum adiponectin levels - SNPs in intron1, exon 2 and in 3'UTR
Serum adiponectin levels are under strong genetic control [
45,
46]. A genome-wide scan of plasma adiponectin levels provided evidence that variation in
ADIPOQ gene, especially rs2241766, rs1501299 and +2019A/- insertion/deletion polymorphism, are responsible for linkage of adiponectin levels to 3q27 in the Old Order Amish [
28]. Moreover, a recent genome wide association study found that rs17366568 explained 3.8% of variation in adiponectin levels, while 6.7% of the variation was explained by all SNPs in the
ADIPOQ region [
47]. In another whole genome association analysis rs6773957 and rs3774261 associated strongly with adiponectin levels [
34]. Furthermore, rs6773957 and two promoter SNPs (rs17300539 and rs822387) associated with higher serum adiponectin levels and a trend for rs17366568 was also seen [
33].
In our study, rs16861210, rs17366568 and rs6773957 associated strongly with baseline serum adiponectin levels in a dose dependent manner. In multiple SNP analyses the significance of rs6773957 was lost indicating LD with another, most likely rs17366568. To our knowledge, no previous studies examining the association between rs16861210 and adiponectin levels have been published. Both rs16861210 and rs17366568 are located in intron 1, but are not in strong LD with each other and represent likely independent genetic signals affecting serum adiponectin levels. Functional role of either SNP is currently unknown, but interestingly, three SNPs located immediately on either side of rs17366568 were predicted to affect transcription factor binding sites [
47].
The association between rs2241766 and rs2082940 with baseline serum adiponectin remained borderline significant in multi SNP analyses and may represent genetic signal, independent of the variations in intron 1. The association of the rare minor alleles of these two SNPs with higher adiponectin levels in men, and on the other hand, higher risk of T2DM in the total population is contradictory. Especially so, since a non-significant trend for lower adiponectin levels predicting higher risk of developing T2DM was seen in our population. The number of minor allele carriers was relatively low and the results should therefore be interpreted with caution. Nevertheless, the T allele of rs2241766 associates with lower adiponectin levels [
14,
28,
30,
31] and the G allele with T2DM related traits in several previous studies [
19‐
21,
24].
While association between
ADIPOQ promoter SNPs and adiponectin levels have been suggested widely [
18,
23,
29,
31‐
33], we did not find significant association between rs266729 and adiponectin levels possibly due to lack of statistical power. The results of several functional studies suggest that rs266729 does not have influence on the transcription efficiency [
16,
27,
32]. On the other hand, an important role in
ADIPOQ promoter activity was recently suggested for rs266729 and two other promoter SNPs (rs16861194 and rs17300539) [
48]. In addition, another study presents evidence that rs266729 alters the sequence in one of the transcriptional stimulatory protein (SP1) binding sites in the promoter region [
49]. Unfortunately, in the DPS population, we did not genotype the promoter variant rs17300539 for which important functional role has been also suggested [
16,
48].
Significant differences were seen in 4-year change in serum adiponectin levels according to rs16861205. Increase in adiponectin levels was greatest in A allele carriers and the most beneficial changes in serum adiponectin concentrations were seen in A allele carriers who were able to lose weight, while in a group of subjects whose weight increased, genotype differences were not seen. This may implicate that A allele carriers benefit more of weight loss in terms of change in adiponectin concentrations. Genotype differences were still significant for the dominant inheritance model when 4-year weight change was used, although the number of subjects was low.
Several
ADIPOQ association studies have failed to replicate results of previous studies or have even reported opposite effects of alleles. Possible explanation is that the LD patterns differ between populations with various ethnic backgrounds. Moreover, the true functional SNPs underlying complex traits may be rare and population specific. Recently, Bowden at al. (2010) demonstrated that a rare
ADIPOQ variant explained approximately 17% of the variance in plasma adiponectin in Hispanic American population. Interestingly, this variant was not observed in African American or European American populations [
50].
Since
ADIPOQ alleles have shown opposite effects even in populations with similar ethnic background and disease status [
14,
51] other explanations, such as differences in participant inclusion criteria, diagnostic criteria and study design, are also possible. As an example, genetic effects for complex traits can vary by age and such interactions can even prevent replication of an association especially in cross-sectional studies [
52]. Lastly gene-gene interactions, genetic epistasis and even epigenetic modifications may modify genetic associations. Although these phenomena are still poorly understood in human, Greene et al (2009) have shown that differences in allele frequencies and gene-gene interactions can explained results where effects of gene variations are significant, but in different directions [
53]. Lastly, one obvious possibility is that these findings are simply due to chance. However, since significant associations have been replicated in many different populations, the latter alternative seems unlikely.
The two-block LD structure of
ADIPOQ with the existence of two independent genetic signals corresponding to the haploblock structure reported earlier [
22,
31] was also found in the DPS and different phenotypes were accounted for mostly by SNPs located in separate regions based on the LD structure of
ADIPOQ.
ADIPOQ is a locus of low LD and high haplotypic diversity [
54] and it is therefore important to perform the association studies in genetically homogeneous population with comparatively high degree of LD. Owing to its demographic history, the Finnish population exhibits a decrease of genetic diversity and an increase in LD when compared with more admixed populations of central European background and it has been speculated that identifying genes for complex traits could be especially advantageous in this population [
55]. Moreover, the participants of the DPS study were carefully selected and phenotyped, hence minimising the risk of false results due to population stratification. Moreover, the follow-up data available in DPS increases the power to find true associations compared to studies with just single measurement of a given variable. The size of the DPS population, however, is moderate for genetic association study and we were only able to measure the serum adiponectin levels from part of the study participants. This may weaken the power to find true associations or increase the risk of false positive findings.
Performing multiple statistical tests in genetic association studies is likely to lead to false positive findings and general guidelines on applying correction for multiple comparisons or threshold values do not exist. In this study, we applied FDR to control for the multiple hypothesis testing and present combination of p-value and q-value for each test performed on single SNPs. The FDR provides an estimation of the minimum false discovery rate at which the test may be called significant. FDR was low (q < 0.1) for associations between ADIPOQ SNPs and body weight/BMI and serum adiponectin levels. However, although p value was <0.05, the FDR was higher for the risk of T2DM in our analyses. Nevertheless, given that our candidate gene was selected based on solid prior information on the important role of adiponectin as a metabolic regulator, and the study design that enabled us to perform statistical analyses also on longitudinal data, we believe that our results are true associations. Again, this is further supported by the results of earlier genetic association studies on ADIPOQ.