Background
Methods
Data collection
Sample allocation and selection
Measurement scale for categorization of wealth index
Data analysis
Ethical considerations
Study limitations
Results
Background characteristics of the study population
Background Characteristics | Region | Total | χ2-value | p-value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
North | South | ||||
Total
|
100.0(13359)
|
100.0(10047)
|
100.0(23406)
| ||
Age
|
445.292
|
p < 0.001
| |||
15-19 | 6.8(908) | 2.6(263) | 5.0(1171) | ||
20-24 | 17.5(2336) | 11.5(1154) | 14.9(3490) | ||
25-29 | 21.5(2875) | 21.7(2176) | 21.6(5051) | ||
30-34 | 17.0 (2274) | 19.6(1967) | 18.1(4241) | ||
35-39 | 14.2(1897) | 18.2(1826) | 15.9(3723) | ||
40-44 | 11.8(1575) | 13.5(1356) | 12.5(2931) | ||
45-49 | 11.2(1494) | 13.0(1305) | 12.0(2799) | ||
Mean Age
|
31.2 ± 8.8
|
36.6 ± 7.9
|
33.4 ± 8.2
| ||
Residence
|
1381.114
|
p < 0.001
| |||
Urban | 21.9(2927) | 44.8(4496) | 31.7 (7423) | ||
Rural | 78.1(10430) | 55.2(5550) | 68.3(15980) | ||
Education
|
7772.909
|
p < 0.001
| |||
None | 69.4 (9266) | 12.8(1283) | 45.1 (10549) | ||
Primary | 16.8(2249) | 31.7 (3180) | 23.2(5429) | ||
Secondary | 10.8(1449) | 43.5 (4372) | 24.9(5821) | ||
Higher | 2.9(393) | 12.1(1211) | 6.9(1604) | ||
Wealth Index
|
5951.738
|
p < 0.001
| |||
Poorest | 34.3 (4580) | 5.5(550) | 21.9(5130) | ||
Poorer | 28.0(3737) | 12.2(1222) | 21.2(4959) | ||
Middle | 18.7(2498) | 19.8(1994) | 19.2(4492) | ||
Richer | 12.0(1601) | 27.3 (2744) | 18.6(4345) | ||
Richest | 7.1(942) | 35.2(3536) | 19.1(4478) | ||
Religion
|
8082.735
|
p < 0.001
| |||
Christian | 21.8(2910) | 80.3 (8071) | 46.9 (10981) | ||
Islam | 75.9(10140) | 17.3(1739) | 50.8 (11879) | ||
Traditional | 1.4(191) | 1.8(181) | 1.6 (372) | ||
Others | 0.9(117) | 0.5(55) | 0.7(172) |
Region | Child Mortality Experience | χ2-value | p-value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
No | Yes | Total | 644.802 | p < 0.001 | |
North | 52.7(7035) | 47.3(6323) | 100.0(13358) | ||
South | 69.1(6943) | 30.9(3103) | 100.0(10046) | ||
Total
|
59.7(13978)
|
40.3(9426)
|
100.0(23404)
|
Background | North | South | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Child Mortality | Child Mortality | |||||
Characteristics | No | Yes | Total | No | Yes | Total |
Total | 7034(52.7) | 6324(47.3) | 100.0(13358) | 69.1(6944) | 30.1(3102) | 100.0(10046) |
Current Age
|
p < 0.001; χ
2
-value = 1417.224
|
p < 0.001; χ
2
-value = 691.626
| ||||
15-19 | 83.9(761) | 16.1(146) | 100.0(907) | 92.4(243) | 7.6(20) | 100.0(263) |
20-24 | 71.4(1669) | 28.6(667) | 100.0(2336) | 85.4(986) | 14.6(168) | 100.0(1154) |
25-29 | 60.7(1745) | 39.3(1130) | 100.0(2875) | 77.9(1695) | 22.1(481) | 100.0(2176) |
30-34 | 49.0(1114) | 51.0(1160) | 100.0(2274) | 73.8(1451) | 26.2(516) | 100.0(1967) |
35-39 | 39.6(752) | 60.4(1145) | 100.0(1897) | 63.1(1152) | 36.9(674) | 100.0(1826) |
40-44 | 34.9(549) | 65.1(1026) | 100.0(1575) | 58.7(796) | 41.3(560) | 100.0(1356) |
45-49 | 29.7(444) | 70.3(1050) | 100.0(1494) | 47.6(621) | 52.4(683) | 100.0(1304) |
Mean Age
|
28.5 ± 8.2
|
34.2 ± 8.5
|
31.2 ± 8.8
|
32.0 ± 7.9
|
36.6 ± 7.9
|
33.4 ± 8.2
|
Residence
|
p < 0.001; χ
2
-value = 83.361
|
p < 0.001; χ
2
-value = 142.934
| ||||
Urban | 60.1(1760) | 39.9(1168) | 100.0(2928) | 75.2(3383) | 24.8(1113) | 100.0(4496) |
Rural | 50.6(5275) | 49.4(5155) | 100.0(10430) | 64.2(3561) | 35.8(1989) | 100.0(5550) |
Education
|
p < 0.001; χ
2
-value = 480.136
|
p < 0.001; χ
2
-value = 406.498
| ||||
None | 47.4(4394) | 52.6(4872) | 100.0(9266) | 57.2(735) | 42.8(549) | 100.0(1284) |
Primary | 56.1(1262) | 43.9(987) | 100.0(2249) | 60.0(1908) | 40.0(1271) | 100.0(3179) |
Secondary | 73.6(1067) | 26.4(383) | 100.0(1450) | 75.1(3283) | 24.9(1089) | 100.0(4372) |
Higher | 79.4(312) | 20.6(81) | 100.0(393) | 84.0(1017) | 16.0(194) | 100.0(1211) |
Wealth Index
|
p < 0.001; χ
2
-value = 289.803
|
p < 0.001; χ
2
-value = 272.048
| ||||
Poorest | 47.9(2195) | 52.1(2385) | 100.0(4580) | 64.5(355) | 35.5(195) | 100.0(550) |
Poorer | 48.2(1801) | 51.8(1936) | 100.0(3737) | 60.7(742) | 39.3(480) | 100.0(1222) |
Middle | 54.5(1361) | 45.5(1137) | 100.0(2498) | 60.0(1196) | 40.0(797) | 100.0(1993) |
Richer | 61.6(987) | 38.4(614) | 100.0(1601) | 68.2(1872) | 31.8(872) | 100.0(2744) |
Richest | 73.5(692) | 26.5(250) | 100.0(942) | 78.6(2778) | 21.4(758) | 100.0(3536) |
Religion
|
p < 0.001; χ
2
-value = 141.423
|
p < 0.001; χ
2
-value = 49.805
| ||||
Christian | 61.6(1793) | 38.4(1116) | 100.0(2909) | 68.6(5533) | 31.4(2538) | 100.0(8071) |
Islam | 50.0(5067) | 50.0(5073) | 100.0(10140) | 73.8(1283) | 26.2(456) | 100.0(1739) |
Traditional | 65.4(125) | 34.6(66) | 100.0(191) | 50.0(90) | 50.0(90) | 100.0(180) |
Others | 41.9(49) | 58.1(68) | 100.0(117) | 67.3(37) | 32.7(18) | 100.0(55) |
Background Characteristics | UNADJUSTED | ADJUSTED | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
β | Exp(β) | 95% C.I for Exp(β) | β | Exp(β) | 95% C.I for Exp(β) | |||
Lower | Upper | Lower | Upper | |||||
Region
| ||||||||
North | 0.699 | 2.011* | 1.905 | 2.124 | 0.355 | 1.426* | 1.317 | 1.544 |
South | (Ref.) | 1.000 | (Ref.) | (Ref.) | (Ref.) | 1.000 | (Ref.) | (Ref.) |
Age
| ||||||||
15-19 | −2.633 | 0.072* | 0.060 | 0.087 | ||||
20-24 | −1.805 | 0.164* | 0.146 | 0.185 | ||||
25-29 | −1.257 | 0.284* | 0.257 | 0.315 | ||||
30-34 | −0.838 | 0.433* | 0.390 | 0.480 | ||||
35-39 | −0.424 | 0.655* | 0.589 | 0.728 | ||||
40-44 | −0.246 | 0.782* | 0.699 | 0.874 | ||||
45-49 | (Ref.) | 1.000 | (Ref.) | (Ref.) | ||||
Residence
| ||||||||
Urban | −0.135 | 0.874** | 0.809 | 0.944 | ||||
Rural | (Ref.) | 1.000 | (Ref.) | (Ref.) | ||||
Education
| ||||||||
None | 1.099 | 3.000* | 2.545 | 3.535 | ||||
Primary | 0.988 | 2.686* | 2.299 | 3.137 | ||||
Secondary | 0.620 | 1.860* | 1.599 | 2.163 | ||||
Higher | (Ref.) | 1.000 | (Ref.) | (Ref.) | ||||
Wealth Index
| ||||||||
Poorer | 0.629 | 1.876* | 1.645 | 2.139 | ||||
Poor | 0.647 | 1.909* | 1.684 | 2.165 | ||||
Middle | 0.534 | 1.706* | 1.519 | 1.915 | ||||
Richer | 0.376 | 1.456* | 1.310 | 1.619 | ||||
Richest | (Ref.) | 1.000 | (Ref.) | (Ref.) | ||||
Religion
| ||||||||
Islam | 0.146 | 1.157* | 1.071 | 1.251 | ||||
Traditional | −0.163 | 0.849 | 0.677 | 1.066 | ||||
Christianity | (Ref.) | 1.000 | (Ref.) | (Ref.) |
Background | North | South | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
95% C.I for Exp(β) | 95% C.I for Exp(β) | |||||||
Characteristics | β | Exp(β) | Lower | Upper | β | Exp(β) | Lower | Upper |
Current Age
| ||||||||
15-19 (Ref.) | (Ref.) | 1.000 | (Ref.) | (Ref.) | (Ref.) | 1.000 | (Ref.) | (Ref.) |
20-24 | 0.835 | 2.304* | 1.886 | 2.815 | 0.803 | 2.232** | 1.374 | 3.625 |
25-29 | 1.375 | 3.953* | 3.255 | 4.801 | 1.400 | 4.053* | 2.538 | 6.474 |
30-34 | 1.873 | 6.509* | 5.340 | 7.934 | 1.664 | 5.280* | 3.304 | 8.436 |
35-39 | 2.270 | 9.680* | 7.903 | 11.858 | 2.129 | 8.407* | 5.266 | 13.421 |
40-44 | 2.483 | 11.975* | 9.714 | 14.762 | 2.291 | 9.883* | 6.170 | 15.830 |
45-49 | 2.634 | 13.927* | 11.256 | 17.232 | 2.648 | 14.127* | 8.808 | 22.657 |
Residence
| ||||||||
Urban | (Ref.) | 1.000 | (Ref.) | (Ref.) | (Ref.) | 1.000 | (Ref.) | (Ref.) |
Rural | 0.053 | 1.054 | 0.945 | 1.176 | 0.200 | 1.222* | 1.094 | 1.365 |
Education
| ||||||||
None | 1.042 | 2.834* | 2.133 | 3.766 | 0.973 | 2.647* | 2.127 | 3.293 |
Primary | 0.953 | 2.593* | 1.952 | 3.444 | 1.036 | 2.818* | 2.340 | 3.393 |
Secondary | 0.510 | 1.665* | 1.250 | 2.217 | 0.679 | 1.971* | 1.652 | 2.353 |
Higher | (Ref.) | 1.000 | (Ref.) | (Ref.) | (Ref.) | 1.000 | (Ref.) | (Ref.) |
Wealth Index
| ||||||||
Poorest | 0.804 | 2.234* | 1.822 | 2.738 | 0.256 | 1.292*** | 1.027 | 1.626 |
Poorer | 0.825 | 2.282* | 1.864 | 2.792 | 0.438 | 1.550* | 1.295 | 1.854 |
Middle | 0.613 | 1.846* | 1.516 | 2.248 | 0.492 | 1.636* | 1.407 | 1.902 |
Richer | 0.385 | 1.469* | 1.208 | 1.786 | 0.347 | 1.415* | 1.244 | 1.610 |
Richest | (Ref.) | 1.000 | (Ref.) | (Ref.) | (Ref.) | 1.000 | (Ref.) | (Ref.) |
Religion
| ||||||||
Christian | (Ref.) | 1.000 | (Ref.) | (Ref.) | (Ref.) | 1.000 | (Ref.) | (Ref.) |
Islam | 0.384 | 1.468* | 1.323 | 1.629 | −0.310 | 0.734* | 0.646 | 0.833 |
Traditional | −0.500 | 0.607** | 0.435 | 0.845 | 0.391 | 1.478*** | 1.078 | 2.027 |
Others | 0.613 | 1.846** | 1.226 | 2.779 | −0.127 | 0.881 | 0.482 | 1.611 |
Age | x | FP(i) | CEB(i) | CA(i) | CD(i) | P(i) | D(i) | K(i) | qx(i) |
l
x(i) | ML | Ref. P |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
5
|
6
|
7
|
8
|
9
|
10
|
11
|
12
|
13
|
15-19 | 1 | 3193 | 1209 | 1056 | 153 | 0.3786 | 0.1266 | 0.8864 | 0.1122 | 0.8879 | 13.26 | 2007.5 |
20-24 | 2 | 3169 | 5257 | 4350 | 907 | 1.6589 | 0.1725 | 0.9395 | 0.1621 | 0.8379 | 12.10 | 2006.1 |
25-29 | 3 | 3200 | 10199 | 8429 | 1770 | 3.1872 | 0.1736 | 0.9296 | 0.1614 | 0.8386 | 13.29 | 2004.3 |
30-34 | 5 | 2361 | 11377 | 8988 | 2389 | 4.8187 | 0.2100 | 0.9795 | 0.2057 | 0.7943 | 12.42 | 2002.2 |
35-39 | 10 | 1947 | 12043 | 9246 | 2797 | 6.1854 | 0.2323 | 1.0483 | 0.2435 | 0.7565 | 12.21 | 1999.9 |
40-44 | 15 | 1620 | 10731 | 8465 | 2266 | 6.6241 | 0.2112 | 1.0364 | 0.2189 | 0.7811 | 13.76 | 1997.4 |
45-49 | 20 | 1541 | 11771 | 8365 | 3406 | 7.6386 | 0.2894 | 1.0161 | 0.2941 | 0.7059 | 11.68 | 1994.6 |
Age | x | FP(i) | CEB(i) | CA(i) | CD(i) | P(i) | D(i) | K(i) | qx(i) |
l
x(i) | ML | Ref. P |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
5
|
6
|
7
|
8
|
9
|
10
|
11
|
12
|
13
|
15-19 | 1 | 3300 | 299 | 276 | 23 | 0.0906 | 0.0769 | 1.0536 | 0.0769 | 0.9231 | 16.55 | 2007.7 |
20-24 | 2 | 2964 | 2057 | 1839 | 218 | 0.6940 | 0.1060 | 1.0447 | 0.1060 | 0.8940 | 15.74 | 2006.7 |
25-29 | 3 | 3109 | 5662 | 5045 | 617 | 1.8212 | 0.1090 | 0.9974 | 0.1090 | 0.8910 | 16.36 | 2005.2 |
30-34 | 5 | 2273 | 6904 | 6140 | 764 | 3.0374 | 0.1107 | 1.0287 | 0.1107 | 0.8893 | 17.17 | 2003.4 |
35-39 | 10 | 1965 | 8537 | 7413 | 1124 | 4.3445 | 0.1317 | 1.0891 | 0.1317 | 0.8683 | 16.98 | 2001.3 |
40-44 | 15 | 1412 | 7335 | 6385 | 950 | 5.1948 | 0.1295 | 1.0712 | 0.1295 | 0.8705 | 17.56 | 1998.9 |
45-49 | 20 | 1332 | 7944 | 6624 | 1320 | 5.9640 | 0.1662 | 1.0465 | 0.1662 | 0.8338 | 16.51 | 1996.1 |
Age | x | lx(i) | Probabilities of surviving lS(i) | Logit {lx(i)} | Logit {lx(s)} | Logit {lx(l) | Smoothed Probability of Surviving | Smoothed Probability of Dying | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Level 12 | Level 13 | Level 12.77 | ||||||||
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
5
|
6
|
7
|
8
|
9
|
10
|
11
|
15-19 | 1 | 0.8879 | 0.87255 | 0.88497 | 0.88211 | −1.03473 | −1.00628 | −0.99529 | 0.87980 | 0.12020 |
20-24 | 2 | 0.8379 | 0.83620 | 0.85299 | 0.84913 | −0.82134 | −0.86390 | −0.85291 | 0.84629 | 0.15371 |
25-29 | 3 | 0.8386 | 0.81397 | 0.83342 | 0.82900 | −0.82392 | −0.78928 | −0.77829 | 0.82586 | 0.17414 |
30-34 | 5 | 0.7943 | 0.78466 | 0.80764 | 0.80236 | −0.67552 | −0.70056 | −0.68957 | 0.79885 | 0.20115 |
35-39 | 10 | 0.7565 | 0.75097 | 0.77729 | 0.77124 | −0.56679 | −0.60766 | −0.59667 | 0.76734 | 0.23266 |
40-44 | 15 | 0.7811 | 0.73375 | 0.76138 | 0.75503 | −0.63604 | −0.56281 | −0.55182 | 0.75094 | 0.24906 |
45-49 | 20 | 0.7059 | 0.71487 | 0.74346 | 0.73688 | −0.43778 | −0.51491 | −0.50392 | 0.73260 | 0.26740 |
Age | x |
l
x(i) | Probabilities of survivingl
S(i) | Logit{l
x
(i)} | Logit{l
x
(s)} | Logit{l
x(l) | Smoothed Probability of Surviving | Smoothed Probability of Dying | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Level 16 | Level 17 | Level 16.21 | ||||||||
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
5
|
6
|
7
|
8
|
9
|
10
|
11
|
15-19 | 1 | 0.9231 | 0.91750 | 0.92764 | 0.91963 | −1.24262 | −1.21866 | −1.23807 | 0.92245 | 0.07755 |
20-24 | 2 | 0.8940 | 0.89785 | 0.91162 | 0.90074 | −1.06613 | −1.10275 | −1.12216 | 0.90416 | 0.09584 |
25-29 | 3 | 0.8910 | 0.88526 | 0.90101 | 0.88857 | −1.05050 | −1.03810 | −1.05751 | 0.89235 | 0.10765 |
30-34 | 5 | 0.8893 | 0.86818 | 0.88633 | 0.87199 | −1.04181 | −0.95934 | −0.97875 | 0.87626 | 0.12374 |
35-39 | 10 | 0.8683 | 0.84751 | 0.86868 | 0.85196 | −0.94301 | −0.87501 | −0.89442 | 0.85679 | 0.14321 |
40-44 | 15 | 0.8705 | 0.83592 | 0.85853 | 0.84067 | −0.95269 | −0.83160 | −0.85101 | 0.84580 | 0.15420 |
45-49 | 20 | 0.8338 | 0.82169 | 0.84564 | 0.82672 | −0.80640 | −0.78128 | −0.80069 | 0.83221 | 0.16779 |