Background
Methods
Study design
Sample size and data collection
Variables
Statistical analysis
Ethical aspects
Results
Prevalence of cracked nipples in the first month postpartum
Factors associated with cracked nipples in the first month postpartum
Variables | N (%) | Cracked nipples | First-stage | Second-stage | Third-stage | Fourth-stage |
p
a
|
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n (%) | PR (95 % CI) | PR (95 % CI) | PR (95 % CI) | PR (95 % CI) | |||
Mother’s age | |||||||
10–19 years | 235 (18.91) | 79 (19.85) | 1.00 | - | - | - | |
20–29 years | 666 (53.58) | 213 (53.52) | 0.95 (0.76–1.18) | - | - | - | |
30–39 years | 321 (25.82) | 100 (25.13) | 0.99 (0.76–1.30) | - | - | - | |
40–49 years | 21 (1.69) | 6 (1.51) | 0.97 (0.46–2.03) | - | - | - | |
Education level | |||||||
≤ primary school | 445 (35.80) | 117 (29.40) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |
≥ secondary school | 798 (64.20) | 281 (70.60) | 1.22 (1.00–1.49) | 1.24 (1.02–1.51) | 1.20 (0.98–1.46) | 1.23 (1.04–1.47) | 0.016 |
Parity | |||||||
Multiparous | 607 (48.83) | 160 (40.20) | 1.00 | - | - | - | |
Primiparous | 636 (51.17) | 238 (59.80) | 1.42 (0.66–3.03) | - | - | - | |
Previous experience with breastfeeding | |||||||
Yes | 589 (47.39) | 155 (38.94) | 1.00 | - | - | - | |
No | 654 (52.61) | 243 (61.06) | 0.92 (0.43–1.98) | - | - | - | |
Skin color | |||||||
Black/brown | 1,013 (81.50) | 322 (80.90) | 1.00 | - | - | - | |
White | 230 (18.50) | 76 (19.10) | 0.97 (0.77–1.22) | - | - | - | |
Family income | |||||||
≥ 1 minimum salary | 592 (47.63) | 209 (52.51) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |
< 1 minimum salary | 651 (52.37) | 189 (47.49) | 0.82 (0.68–0.99) | 0.95 (0.77–1.16) | 0.97 (0.79–1.19) | 0.95 (0.78–1.15) | 0.631 |
Living with child’s father | |||||||
Yes | 1,070 (86.08) | 337 (84.67) | 1.00 | - | - | - | |
No | 173 (13.92) | 61 (15.33) | 1.13 (0.90–1.41) | - | - | - | |
Number of prenatal visits | |||||||
≥ 6 visits | 958 (77.07) | 310 (77.89) | - | 1.00 | - | ||
< 6 visits | 285 (22.93) | 88 (22.11) | - | 1.07 (0.87–1.32) | - | ||
Guidance on breastfeeding received during prenatal care | |||||||
Yes | 332 (26.71) | 91 (22.86) | - | 1.00 | - | - | |
No | 911 (73.29) | 307 (77.14) | - | 1.11 (0.91–1.36) | - | - | |
Type of prenatal care | |||||||
Public/publicly funded | 841 (67.66) | 243 (61.06) | - | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |
Private | 402 (32.34) | 155 (38.94) | - | 1.34 (1.07–1.69) | 1.15 (0.82–1.60) | 1.03 (0.82–1.30) | 0.760 |
Type of delivery | |||||||
Vaginal | 684 (55.03) | 184 (46.23) | - | - | 1.00 | 1.00 | |
Cesarean section | 559 (44.97) | 214 (53.77) | - | - | 1.31 (1.07–1.61) | 1.33 (1.13–1.57) | 0.001 |
Type of hospital | |||||||
Public/publicly funded | 920 (74.01) | 271 (68.09) | - | - | 1.00 | - | - |
Private | 323 (25.99) | 127 (31.91) | - | - | 0.92 (0.63–1.33) | - | - |
Delivery at Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative-accredited facility | |||||||
Yes | 312 (25.10) | 66 (16.58) | - | - | 1.00 | 1.00 | |
No | 931 (74.90) | 332 (83.42) | - | - | 1.48 (1.09–2.00) | 1.51 (1.15–1.99) | 0.003 |
Breastfeeding within the first hour after delivery | |||||||
Yes | 584 (46.98) | 177 (44.47) | - | - | 1.00 | - | |
No | 659 (53.02) | 221 (55.53) | - | - | 1.06 (0.88–1.27) | - | |
Birth weight | |||||||
≥ 2,500 g | 1,185 (95.33) | 381 (95.73) | - | - | 1.00 | - | |
< 2,500 g | 58 (4.67) | 17 (4.27) | - | - | 0.92 (0.61–1.40) | - | |
Mother gets help with household chores | |||||||
Yes | 940 (75.62) | 304 (76.38) | - | - | - | 1.00 | |
No | 303 (24.38) | 94 (23.62) | - | - | - | 1.11 (0.92–1.34) | 0.258 |
Father helps take care of the child | |||||||
Yes | 1,047 (84.23) | 326 (81.91) | - | - | - | 1.00 | |
No | 196 (15.77) | 72 (18.09) | - | - | - | 1.15 (0.94–1.42) | 0.168 |
Type of nipple | |||||||
Normal | 1,178 (94.77) | 371 (93.22) | - | - | - | 1.00 | |
Flat/inverted/pseudo-inverted | 65 (5.23) | 27 (6.78) | - | - | - | 1.20 (0.90–1.61) | 0.205 |
Fixed schedule to breastfeed at 30 days | |||||||
No | 1,191 (95.82) | 376 (94.47) | - | - | - | 1.00 | |
Yes | 52 (4.18) | 22 (5.53) | - | - | - | 1.09 (0.77–1.54) | 0.619 |
Mother knows how to express excess milk at 30 days | |||||||
Yes | 885 (71.20) | 288 (72.36) | - | - | - | 1.00 | |
No | 358 (28.80) | 110 (27.64) | - | - | - | 1.02 (0.86–1.21) | 0.752 |
Breastfeeding technique | |||||||
Proper | 1,147 (92.28) | 314 (78.89) | - | - | - | 1.00 | |
Poor | 96 (7.72) | 84 (21.11) | - | - | - | 3.18 (2.72–3.72) | 0.000 |
Breast engorgement | |||||||
No | 830 (66.77) | 201 (50.50) | - | - | - | 1.00 | |
Yes | 413 (33.23) | 197 (49.50) | - | - | - | 1.70 (1.46–1.99) | 0.000 |
Child’s sex | |||||||
Female | 578 (46.50) | 194 (48.74) | - | - | - | 1.00 | |
Male | 665 (53.50) | 204 (51.26) | - | - | - | 0.87 (0.75–1.01) | 0.088 |
Use of a pacifier at 30 days | |||||||
No | 734 (59.05) | 219 (55.03) | - | - | - | 1.00 | |
Yes | 509 (40.95) | 179 (44.97) | - | - | - | 0.98 (0.84–1.16) | 0.898 |
Use of a feeding bottle at 30 days | |||||||
No | 1,010 (80.26) | 297 (74.62) | - | - | - | 1.00 | |
Yes | 233 (18.74) | 101 (25.38) | - | - | - | 1.29 (1.06–1.55) | 0.008 |