In the present study we investigated if treatment with levodopa/benserazide affects delayed inflammation after stroke, which is the number of MHC II+ cells and levels of pro-inflammatory molecules in the postischemic brain. We found that MHC II+ cells accumulate in the ischemic hemisphere independent from the treatment while levodopa/benserazide treatment significantly downregulated MHC II proteins in the ischemic territory. Moreover, we detected a delayed accumulation of MHC II+ cells in the CC ipsi- and contralateral to the lesioned hemisphere and found that the number of these cells in the contralateral CC is increased by the treatment.
Dynamics of immune cell accumulation in the postischemic brain - influence of levodopa treatment
Our studies show that treatment with levodopa/benserazide is effective in two rat strains subjected to tMCAO. Moreover, postischemic immune cell accumulation to the brain observed in vehicle-treated Sprague Dawley rats subjected to tMCAO are similar to those found in Wistar rats subjected to tMCAO [
23]; hence, the time of occlusion necessary to obtain similar lesions differed between the strains. Both strains have been compared in experimental stroke models [
28],[
29]. A higher variability of lesions was observed in Wistar rats subjected to photothrombosis and in Sprague Dawley rats subjected to tMCAO with a higher survival rate after the insult. We have extensively tested times of MCA occlusion in both rat strains and similar lesions and functional deficits were obtained using 120 minutes in Wistar rats and 105 minutes in Sprague Dawley rats. While Wistar rats showed a high variability in lesion size, consistent infarctions and higher survival rates were observed in Sprague Dawley rats. Consistent and large lesions are essential to obtain a sufficient inflammatory response including the accumulation of high enough immune cell counts from individual animals.
Based on immunohistochemistry and FACS analysis we could confirm a delayed accumulation of MHC II
+ cells in the postischemic brain after tMCAO [
21] and show that the majority of MHC II
+ cells are microglia/macrophages identified by co-expression of CD11b and CD45 [
5]. Only a minority of the MHC II
+ cell population was identified as dendritic cells. A portion of MHC II
+ cells co-expressed CD80 or CD86, molecules necessary for signal transduction between immune cells and identifying these cells as professional antigen presenting cells [
30]. Our findings are in contrast to a recent study demonstrating a widespread invasion of dendritic cells expressing the co-stimulatory molecule CD80 after tMCAO. Differences might be due to species differences and the use of a CD11c driven enhanced yellow fluorescent protein (EYFP) as an overall dendritic cell marker [
31].
Additional immunofluorescence analyses showed that a number of MHC II
+ cells express D1 receptors emphasizing their susceptibility to levodopa treatment. Together with the lack of D2 and D3 receptor expression (data not shown) this finding supports mechanisms dependent on the activation of D1 receptors in these cells. Our experiments showed different effects of levodopa/benserazide treatment in regard to the levels of MHC II proteins and the number of MHC II
+ cells in the lesioned hemisphere. While MHC II proteins were significantly downregulated we found no differences in the number of MHC II
+ cells between vehicle and levodopa/benserazide-treated animals. The expression of MHC II molecules depends on presentation of antigens to immune cells such as microglia and involves the activation of intracellular signalling cascades in respective cells [
32]. On the other hand, even with a very low number of MHC II molecules presented on the surface, cells were determined as MHC II
+. The findings are not contradictory because also low numbers of MHC II molecules found in levodopa/benserazide-treated rats are presented on the cell surface and, therefore, these cells were counted as MHC II
+. Hence, this assumption is only valid if no differences in posttranslational intracellular transport, integration of MHC II molecules on the cell surface and the same overall accumulation of immune cells in the lesioned hemisphere exist as shown in Figure
4. The two approaches to assess MHC II, therefore, can only be considered as complementary.
The regulation of MHC II expression in microglial cells has not been investigated in detail. It has been shown that infusion of IFN-γ increases the expression of MHC II in microglia [
33]. Thus, long-term suppression of IFN-γ in the ischemic hemisphere by levodopa/benserazide treatment may downregulate MHC II proteins. A possible mechanism to reduce the expression of MHC II molecules by dopamine signaling might be via inhibitory actions of the protein kinase A (PKA). As previously shown, activation of D1 receptors leads to phosphorylation of PKA [
34] which subsequently inhibits CIITA, a positive regulator of MHC II gene transcription [
35].
Pro-inflammatory cytokines are also expressed in other resident brain cells such as neurons or astrocytes [
36],[
37]. Treatment with levodopa/benserazide also has effects on the function of these cells expressing dopamine receptors including a reduction of cytokine release. Paracrine communication of cells in turn may affect surrounding immune cells such as MHC II
+ cells. Taken together, our results point towards immunomodulatory effects involving the expression of MHC II molecules by levodopa treatment in the postischemic brain, possibly by a reduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines.
Putative functions of MHC II+cells in the corpus callosum
The CC represents one of the principal connections in the communication between the two hemispheres [
8]. Here, for the first time we describe the delayed accumulation of MHC II
+ cells in the CC of the ipsi- and contralateral hemisphere after tMCAO. Further characterization by FACS analysis revealed that the majority of these cells are CD11b
+ microglia. In addition, we identified a small portion of cells co-expressing CD11b and CD11c indicative for myeloid dendritic cells [
19]. A possible functional relevance of these cells might be that due to ischemic injury, anterograde as well as retrograde degeneration of neuronal fibers takes place, and accumulation of MHC II
+ cells might either perpetuate neurodegeneration or provide a protective/trophic support to neurons [
38]. Quantification of MHC II
+ cells in the contralateral CC showed an increased number of cells in animals treated with levodopa/benserazide independent from the infarct volume which was not affected by the treatment [
16]. Since MHC II
+ cells appear ramified and activated [
39] and do not display an ameboid phagocyte-like morphology, as observed in the infarct core, a neurotrophic function and support in remyelination might be possible [
36]. Hence, we cannot exclude phagocytosis of cellular debris.
In conclusion, our results demonstrate that dopamine attenuates the inflammatory response in the ischemic hemisphere. In addition, our data show an accumulation of MHC II+ cells in the CC of the hemisphere contralateral and ipsilateral to the ischemic lesion. Interestingly, the number of cells was significantly elevated by treatment with levodopa/benserazide suggesting that these cells exert beneficial actions contributing to recovery after stroke. Together, both components of dopamine actions might be exploited in future recovery-enhancing stroke therapies.