Background
Methods
Target behaviour | Target clinical behaviour (includes timepoint if not immediate) Location: emergency department | Who performs the behaviour |
---|---|---|
Triage | All patients presenting to ED with signs and symptoms of suspected acute stroke should be triaged as Australian Triage Scale Category 1 or 2 (seen within 10 min) | ED nurse |
Thrombolysis | All patients to be assessed for rt-PA eligibility in ED All eligible patients to receive rt-PA in ED | ED nurse, ED doctor, Stroke doctor, Stroke nurse ED doctor, Stroke doctor, Stroke nurse |
Temperature management | All patients to have their temperature taken on admission to ED and then at least 4 hourly whilst they remain in ED Temperature 37.5 °C or greater to be treated with paracetamol (acetaminophen) in ED | ED nurse ED nurse |
Blood glucose management | Venous BGL sample taken to laboratory on admission to ED Finger prick BGL recorded on admission to ED and finger prick BGL monitored every 6 h (or greater if elevated) Insulin administered to all patients with BGL > 10 mMol/L within 1 h in ED or stroke unit | ED nurse, ED doctor ED nurse, Stroke nurse ED nurse, Stroke nurse, Endocrinologist |
Swallow management | Patients to remain NBM until a swallow screen by non-Speech pathologist or swallow assessment by Speech pathologist performed in ED All patients who fail the swallow screen to remain NBM and have a swallowing assessment by a Speech pathologist whilst in ED | ED nurse, Stroke nurse, ED doctor, Speech pathologist Speech pathologist |
Transfer | All patients with stroke to be discharged from ED within 4 h All patients with stroke to be admitted to the hospital’s stroke unit | ED nurse, ED doctor, Stroke nurse, Bed manager ED nurse, Stroke nurse, Bed manager |
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Step 1: Who needs to do what, differently?
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Step 2: Using a theoretical framework, which barriers and enablers need to be addressed?
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Step 3: Which intervention components (behaviour change techniques and mode(s) of delivery) could overcome the modifiable barriers and enhance the enablers?
Step 1: Who needs to do what, differently?
Step 2: Using a theoretical framework, which barriers and enablers need to be addressed?
Step 3: Which intervention components (behaviour change techniques and mode(s) of delivery) could overcome the modifiable barriers and enhance the enablers?
Results
Step 1: Who needs to do what, differently?
Step 2:
Domain and example quotes [target behaviour] | Target behaviour | Barriers identified |
---|---|---|
Knowledge (n
a = 16) An awareness of the existence of something
They would need intensive education. [Triage]
I think that if nurses are educated on the importance of having the temperature taken, the compliance will fit in. [Temperature management] | Triage | Possible lack of knowledge of triaging stroke patients using the Australasian Triage Scale Delays in identifying symptoms of stroke |
Thrombolysis | Not recognising importance of documenting ineligibility for rt-PA treatment Uncertainty about use of criteria to select patients for rt-PAb
| |
Temperature management | Lack of awareness and/or do not understand importance of monitoring temperature in stroke patients Lack of knowledge about alternative modes of delivering paracetamol for patients with certain needs i.e. NBM Limited or no access to IV or rectal paracetamol for patients who are NBM Nurses reluctance to use rectal paracetamol as invasive or possibly patient refusal may result in nurse refusal to use Nurses routinely treat at a higher temperature threshold according to hospital policies | |
Blood glucose management | Lack of understanding of importance of undertaking a formal BGL Lack of understanding of importance of monitoring BGL Lack of understanding of importance of administering insulin for all stroke patients regardless of diabetic status Lack of knowledge about process of administering insulin infusion Sceptism about benefits of administrating insulin for patients with a BGL > 10, e.g. risk of hypoglycemiab
| |
Swallow management | Lack of knowledge that all patients who fail swallow screen should be assessed by a speech pathologist Nurses reluctance to keep patients NBM due to lack of awareness of evidence that aspirin can be administered up to 48 hours post-stroke, i.e. may not need to be given immediately Belief of lack of robust evidence for effectiveness of non-oral aspirin when patients are NBM | |
Skills (n = 4) An ability or proficiency acquired through practice
It’s the wards, there’s a lot of wards not use to running infusions [that may be commenced in ED]. [Blood glucose management]
We struggle with the skills …we have our normal competencies, we have trouble keeping up to date with [them]. [Blood glucose management] | Triage | Possible lack of experience in triaging of stroke patients |
Temperature management | Lack of knowledge about alternative modes of delivering paracetamol for patients NBMb
| |
Blood glucose management | Lack of skill in administering an insulin infusion | |
Swallow management | Lack of nurses trained how to conduct of swallow screening | |
Social/Professional Role and Identity (n = 4) A coherent set of behaviours and displayed personal qualities of an individual in a social or work setting
Oh these patients they're Category 1 or 2 [Australian Triage Scale] so there's not necessarily the need for a nurse to initiate it. You can have a physician there at the bedside as well. [Thrombolysis]
I don’t have a problem with it, we certainly have spoken about this over the last few years, but it has been about getting support from speech pathology to roll it [nurse screening] out. [Swallow management] | Thrombolysis | Delays associated with securing a CT scanb
|
Temperature management | Nurses are unable to administer non-oral paracetamol without a written orderb
| |
Blood glucose management | Inconsistent use or variation in protocols between between ED and stroke unit | |
Swallow management | Perception that role boundaries should not be blurred, i.e. traditional discipline-specific tasks should not be conducted by staff from other disciplines. | |
Beliefs about Capabilities (n = 5) Acceptance of the truth, reality, or validity about an ability, talent, or facility that a person can put to constructive use
So I'm just wondering whether we need some more education in terms of tPA to try and make clinicians more comfortable in the use of it for strokes. [Thrombolysis]
But the nurses having a bit more confidence to say “well no actually they haven’t had their swallow screen.” [Swallow management] | Thrombolysis | Uncertainty about use of criteria to select patients for rt-PAb
|
Swallow management | Nurses lack confidence to disagree with a doctor’s decision to override a patient’s NBM status
b
Delays in authorisation of new protocols/forms by hospital management committeesb
Nurses’ own perception of competence in performing a swallow screen Lack confidence in performing a swallow screen | |
Optimism (n = 2) The confidence that things will happen for the best or that desired goals will be attained
The stuff that you're talking about - doing, a temperature check and the blood sugar - it's all routine stuff anyway. That's just what they [nurses] would do. [Temperature management]
But I think getting used to just writing up for every patient with a stroke, and whether all the nurses use it. [Temperature management] | Temperature management | Perception that this action already routine practice Attitude by nurses that changing practices about temperature management requires time |
Beliefs about Consequences (n = 9) Acceptance of the truth, reality or validity about outcomes of a behaviour in a given situation
But with the unimpressive previous studies with stroke I don't think any of the consultants here feels that it's particularly worth pushing. I mean if it's [BGL] above 12 then we probably would do something. [Blood glucose management]
I think you're right there is a fear of hypoglycaemia, especially in stroke patients who are obviously a slightly different group who may be NBM [and] not be getting any feeding at all. So [with] a BSL of 10.1 and then putting them on insulin infusion when they're not eating anything starts to become also a little bit of a concern. [Blood glucose management] | Triage | Lack of understanding regarding importance of triaging stroke patients Belief that triage allocation will not impact on the patient’s outcome |
Temperature management | Lack of awareness of the importance of monitoring temperature in stroke patients Nurses reluctance to use rectal paracetamol as invasive or possibly patients may refuse may result in staff reluctance to use | |
Blood glucose management | Belief that introducing insulin infusions will have unintended consequences i.e. prevents admission to the stroke unit or the patient is transferred to high dependency instead (many stroke unit will not accept patients with IV insulin infusions) Perceived increase in staff workload if insulin is administered by IV infusion Belief that there is a lack of research evidence to justify a BGL > 10 as a trigger to treat Sceptism about benefits of administrating insulin for patients with a BGL > 10, e.g. risk of hypoglycemiab
| |
Swallow management | Belief there is lack of robust evidence for effectiveness of non-oral medications such as aspirin | |
Reinforcement (n = 1) Increasing the probability of a response by arranging a dependent relationship, or contingency, between the response and a given stimulus
No, you cannot nurse-initiate PR paracetamol. [Temperature management]
At the moment we don't have direct access to IV paracetamol in ED, we have to call pharmacy to put an order in. [Temperature management] | Temperature management | Nurses are unable to administer non-oral paracetamol without a written orderb
|
Intentions A conscious decision to perform a behaviour or a resolve to act in a certain way
Example quote not applicable
|
No barriers identified for this behaviour/domain
|
No barriers identified that corresponded with this domain
|
Goals (n = 3) Mental representations of outcomes or end states that an individual wants to achieve
[Name] has described how busy the ED is and it does add a layer of complexity to the patient when they are on an insulin infusion. [Blood glucose management]
| Triage | Competing priorities in a busy ED environment |
Blood glucose management | Competing priorities in a busy ED environmentb
Lack of understanding regarding the importance of administering insulin for all stroke patients regardless of diabetic status | |
Memory, Attention and Decision Processes (n = 5) The ability to retain information, focus selectively on aspects of the environment and choose between two or more alternatives
The ED nurses are really good at that [taking temperature on admission], so everyone will get one on admission. It’s just how you remind people at that four hour mark to do it. [Temperature management]
It's a matter of remembering to request [the formal glucose]. [Blood glucose management] | Triage | Lack of adherence to certain care principles or pathways for stroke patientsb
|
Thrombolysis | Staff overlook documentation of reasons for not administrating rt-PA | |
Temperature management | Lack of adherence to certain care principles or pathways for stroke patientsb
| |
Blood glucose management | Staff overlook requesting a formal BGL | |
Transfer | Competing priorities in a busy ED environmentb
| |
Environmental Context and Resources (n = 30) Any circumstance of a person’s situation or environment that discourages or encourages the development of skills and abilities, independence, social competence, and adaptive behaviour
I think [Name] was worried about increased workload for his department. [Blood glucose management]
That would be difficult for an infusion to run from coming to ED to ward. We have one working pump at the moment. We have another one that we use for thrombolysis on the ward. So if you're having people coming up on insulin infusions we won't have the equipment. [Blood glucose management] | Triage | Delays in identifying symptoms of stroke Competing priorities in a busy ED environmentb
Patient’s mode of presentation at hospital influences triage categories Inconsistent care processes between in-hours and out-of-hours |
Thrombolysis | Delays associated with securing a CT scanb
No systems in place to manage stroke calls out-of-hours Delays in authorisation of new protocols/forms by hospital management committeesb
| |
Temperature management | Lack of thermometers in ED Lack of knowledge about alternative modes of delivering paracetamol when patient NBMb
Hospital regulations set for drug prescribing No hospital protocol for temperature management in stroke patients | |
Blood glucose management | Formal BGL testing not routine in current practice No hospital protocol for BGL in stroke patients Hospital initiatives prevent implementation of this care element i.e. cost saving relating to testing of bloods Limited access to BGL machines Lack of insulin infusion pumps Competing priorities in a busy ED environmentb
Perceived increase in workload for staff administrating insulin to patients by IV infusion Limited time due to competing priorities in a busy environment No hospital protocol for use of insulin infusions in stroke patients Inconsistent use or variation in protocols between ED and stroke unitb
| |
Swallow management | Competing priorities in a busy ED environmentb
Difficulties with training appropriate staff due to staffing issues, out-of-hours and organisational issues Ineffective systems of communication during staff hand-over on patient transfer from ED to the stroke unit such as lack of documentation of aspirin administration and whether swallow screen done, particularly when the patient failed the screen No seven-day week service provided by speech pathologists | |
Transfer | Hospital protocols preclude the transfer of patient undergoing thrombolysis to the stroke unit Ineffective communication between ward staff and bed managers Availability of beds in stroke unit prevent patients from being transferred from ED Staff shortages impacting on bed capacity of the stroke unit Type of stroke may influence patient’s pathway to the stroke unit | |
Social Influences (n = 8) Those interpersonal processes that can cause individuals to change their thoughts, feelings, or behaviours
When there's a protocol and it's the same protocol it's quite easy but when it's different, which it often is … I think there's no continuity …. it falls through the cracks. [Swallow management] | Thrombolysis | Uncertainty about use of criteria to select patients for rt-PAb
|
Temperature management | Attitude that changing practices about temperature management requires time | |
Blood glucose management | Formal BGL testing is not routine in current practice Clinical opinion overrules guidelines or protocols Negative perception of the value and meaning of other staff roles | |
Swallow management | Inconsistent use or variation in protocols between ED and stroke unitb
Ineffective systems of communication during patient transfer from ED to stroke unit Nurses lack of confidence to disagree with a doctor’s decision to override a patient’s NBM statusb
| |
Emotion (n = 4) A complex reaction pattern, involving experiential, behavioural, and physiological elements, by which the individual attempts to deal with a personally significant matter or event
We don't want the situation where if there's no beds [in stroke unit], the patient's stuck in ED because they have an insulin infusion. [Blood glucose management]
I'm slightly concerned they may actually induce hypoglycaemia in the people [for whom] we're trying to adjust the insulin. It's very complicated. I can foresee that the risk for error is quite high. [Blood glucose management] | Thrombolysis | Uncertainty about use of criteria to select patients for rt-PAb
|
Blood glucose management | Belief that introducing insulin infusions will have unintended consequences i.e. prevents the admission to the stroke unit or the patient is transferred to a high dependency ward instead Clinical opinion overrules guidelines or protocols | |
Swallow management | Nurses lack confidence to disagree with a doctor’s decision to override a patient’s NBM statusb
| |
Behavioural Regulation (n = 3) Anything aimed at managing or changing objectively observed or measured actions
I think a lot of education needs to be provided around that [administering paracetamol at 37.5 °C] because nursing staff always think 38 °C, nothing [no paracetamol] until 38 °C. [Temperature management]
So I think this will be the most challenging because giving insulin at 10 is not something we would do. That's way outside our practice for normal… [Blood glucose management] | Temperature management | Nurses routinely and ‘automatically’ treat at a different temperature threshold Staff perception that this action already routine practice |
Blood glucose management | Nurses routinely and ‘automatically’ treat at a different threshold for BGL |
Step 3: Which intervention components (behaviour change techniques and mode(s) of delivery) could overcome the modifiable barriers and enhance the enablers?
Domain | Corresponding techniquesa
| Definition of technique |
---|---|---|
Knowledge | Health consequences | Provide information (e.g. written, verbal, visual) about health consequences of performing the behaviour |
Feedback on behaviour | Monitor and provide informative or evaluative feedback on performance of the behaviour (e.g. form, frequency, duration, intensity) | |
Behavioural rehearsal/practice | Prompt practice or rehearsal of the performance of the behaviour one or more times in a context or at a time when the performance may not be necessary, in order to increase habit and skill | |
Goal/target specified: behaviour or outcome | Set a goal defined in terms of the behaviour to be achieved | |
Self-monitoring | Establish method for the person to monitor and record their behaviour(s) as part of behaviour change strategy | |
Social/professional role and identity | Social support or encouragement | Advise on, arrange or provide social support (e.g. from friends, relatives, colleagues, ‘buddies’ or staff) or non-contingent praise or reward for performance of the behaviour. It includes encouragement and counselling, but only when it is directed at the behaviour |
Salience of consequences | Use methods specifically designed to emphasise the consequences of performing the behaviour with the aim of making them more memorable (goes beyond informing about consequences) | |
Anticipated regret | Induce or raise awareness of expectations of future regret about performance of the unwanted behaviour | |
Social and environmental consequences | Provide information (e.g. written, verbal, visual) about social and environmental consequences of performing the behaviour | |
Comparative imagining of future outcome | Prompt or advise the imagining and comparing of future outcomes of changed versus unchanged behaviour | |
Pros and cons | Advise person to identify and compare reasons for wanting (pros) and not wanting (cons) to change behaviour | |
Persuasive communication | Credible source presents arguments in favour of the behaviour | |
Feedback on behaviour | Monitor and provide informative or evaluative feedback on performance of the behaviour (e.g. form, frequency, duration, intensity) | |
Goal setting (behaviour) | Set a goal defined in terms of the behaviour to be achieved | |
Action planning (including implementation intentions) | Prompt detailed planning of performance of behaviour (must include ≥ one of context, frequency, duration and intensity). Context may be environmental (physical or social) or internal (physical, emotional or cognitive) | |
Memory, Attention and Decision Processes | Planning, implementation | Prompt detailed planning of the behaviour goal (including at least one of context, frequency, intensity and duration of performance) |
Prompts, triggers, cues | Use environmental, social or internal stimuli to prompt or cue performance of wanted behaviour or non-performance of unwanted behaviour | |
Environmental context and resources | Restructuring the social environment | Change, or advise to change the social environment in order to facilitate performance of the wanted behaviour or create barriers to the unwanted behaviour (other than prompts/cues, rewards and punishments) |
Prompts/cues | Introduce or define environmental or social stimulus with the purpose of prompting or cueing the behaviour. The prompt or cue would normally occur at the time or place of performance | |
Avoidance/changing exposure to cues for the behaviour | Advise on how to avoid exposure to specific social and contextual/physical cues for the behaviour, including changing daily or weekly routines | |
Environmental changes (e.g. objects to facilitate behaviour) | Change the environment in order to facilitate the target behaviour (other than prompts, rewards and punishments, e.g. choice of food provided) | |
Social Influences | Social comparison | Explicitly draw attention to others’ performance to elicit comparisons |
Social support or encouragement (general) | Advise on, facilitate or provide development of general social support for the behaviour (e.g. friends, relatives, colleagues, ‘buddies’ or staff) | |
Information about others approval | Provide information about what other people think about the behaviour. Clarifies whether others will like, approve or disapprove of what the person is doing or will do | |
Social support (emotional) | Advise on or facilitate development of emotional social support for performing the behaviour | |
Social support (practical) | Advise on or facilitate development of practical help for achieving the behaviour | |
Modelling or demonstrating the behaviour | Provide an example for people to aspire to or imitate | |
Emotion | Reduce negative emotions | Advise on ways of reducing negative emotions to facilitate performance of the behaviour |
Coping skills | Analyse problem and generate or select solutions that include overcoming barriers and increasing facilitators | |
Behavioural Regulation | Self-monitoring of behaviour | Establish method for person to monitor and record their behaviour(s) as part of a behaviour change strategy |
Generating a final set of BCTs
Implementation intervention component | Selection of behavioural change techniques |
---|---|
Multidisciplinary barrier and enabler workshops for ED, stroke unit and endocrine clinicians | Goal/target specified: behaviour or outcome |
Social and environmental consequences | |
Restructuring the social environment | |
Environmental changes (e.g. objects to facilitate behaviour) | |
Social support (practical) | |
Social support (emotional) | |
Planning, implementation | |
Action planning | |
Goal setting (behaviour) | |
Interactive and didactic education programme for ED and stroke unit clinicians | Health consequences |
Behavioural rehearsal/practice | |
Social and environmental consequences | |
Salience of consequences | |
Feedback on behaviour | |
Focus on past success | |
Social comparison | |
Reduce negative emotions | |
Anticipated regret | |
Coping skills | |
Comparative imaging of future outcomes | |
Use of local clinical opinion leaders | Verbal persuasion to boost self-efficacy |
Persuasive communication | |
Pros and cons | |
Modelling/demonstration of the behaviour | |
Anticipated regret | |
Social comparison | |
Information about others’ approval | |
Reminders | Prompts/cues |
Avoidance/changing exposure to cues for the behaviour | |
Site support | Self-monitoring |
Self-reward | |
Social support or encouragement | |
Coping skills | |
Action planning | |
Goal setting |