Menthol topical application and mouth rinsing are ergogenic in hot environments, improving performance and perception, with differing effects on body temperature regulation. |
Consequently, athletes and federations are beginning to explore the possible benefits to elite sport performance for the Tokyo 2021 Olympics, which will take place in hot (~ 31 °C), humid (70% RH) conditions. |
Menthol topical application and mouth rinsing are ergogenic in endurance activities and show promise as an intervention to enhance other sport performance. |
This consensus statement provides guidance on the safe and effective use of menthol for athletes, practitioners, and researchers. |
1 Introduction
2 Method
2.1 Panel Selection
2.2 Systematic Reviews of Literature
2.3 Round 1
2.4 Round 2
2.5 Round 3
3 Results
3.1 Panel Participation
3.2 Round 1
3.3 Round 2
3.4 Round 3
Item | Question no. | Domain | Context | Statement | Agree/disagree | Round achieved | Caveat |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
a | 1 | (1) Activity type | Endurance (e.g., athletic exercise efforts lasting > 2.5 min) | Single topical Menthol application enhances the performance of this activity | Agree | 3 | At high concentration (e.g., 8% concentration; e.g., Schlader et al. [62]) if test is considered valid representation of athletic event |
b | 11 | (1) Activity type | Endurance (e.g., athletic exercise efforts lasting > 2.5 min) | Repeated topical Menthol application enhances the performance of this activity | Agree | 1 | Barwood et al. [8] saw performance effect at fixed power output to exhaustion; if test is considered valid representation of athletic event |
c | 22 | (2) Population | Recreationally active | Single topical Menthol application enhances the performance of this population | Agree | 1 | – |
d | 23 | (2) Population | Trained | Single topical Menthol application enhances the performance of this population | Agree | 1 | – |
e | 26 | (2) Population | Males | Single topical Menthol Application enhances the performance of this population | Agree | 1 | – |
f | 31 | (2) Population | Trained | Repeated topical Menthol application enhances the performance of this population | Agree | 1 | – |
g | 34 | (2) Population | Males | Repeated topical Menthol application enhances the performance of this population | Agree | 1 | – |
Item | Question no. | Domain | Context | Statement | Agree/disagree | Round achieved | Caveat |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
a | 37 | (3) Experimental effects | Improves thermal discomfort (i.e., participants feel more comfortable) | Single topical Menthol Application reliably induces the following experimental effects during exercise in the heat | Agree | 1 | – |
b | 38 | (3) Experimental effects | Lowers thermal sensation (i.e., participants feel cooler on topical application) | Single topical Menthol Application reliably induces the following experimental effects during exercise in the heat | Agree | 1 | - |
c | 39 | (3) Experimental effects | Lowers rating of perceived exertion for a given workload | Single topical Menthol Application reliably induces the following experimental effects during exercise in the heat | Agree | 1 | – |
d | 40 | (3) Experimental effects | Alters behavioural thermoregulation (i.e., participants can exercise for longer/work at a higher intensity) | Single topical Menthol Application reliably induces the following experimental effects during exercise in the heat | Agree | 3 | In fixed intensity/perceptual or tolerance based protocols |
e | 41 | (3) Experimental effects | Alters reflex thermoregulatory heat defense responses of sweating | Single topical Menthol Application reliably induces the following experimental effects during exercise in the heat | Agree | 3 | |
f | 42 | (3) Experimental effects | Alters reflex thermoregulatory heat defense responses of peripheral blood flow | Single topical Menthol Application reliably induces the following experimental effects during exercise in the heat | Agree | 1 | – |
g | 49 | (3) Experimental effects | Is body surface area dependent for the magnitude of its experimental effects | Single topical Menthol Application reliably induces the following experimental effects during exercise in the heat | Agree | 1 | – |
h | 50 | (3) Experimental effects | Is concentration-dependent for the magnitude of its experimental effects | Single topical Menthol Application reliably induces the following experimental effects during exercise in the heat | Agree | 1 | – |
i | 52 | (3) Experimental effects | Lowers thermal sensation (i.e., participants feel cooler on topical application) | Repeated topical Menthol Application reliably induces the following experimental effects during exercise in the heat | Agree | 1 | – |
j | 54 | (3) Experimental effects | Alters behavioural thermoregulation (i.e., participants can exercise for longer/work at a higher intensity) | Repeated topical Menthol Application reliably induces the following experimental effects during exercise in the heat | Agree | 1 | – |
Item | Question no. | Domain | Context | Statement | Agree/disagree | Round achieved | Caveat |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
a | 65 | (4) Health effects | Is safe at low concentrations | Single topical Menthol application | Agree | 1 | – |
b | 66 | (4) Health effects | Is harmful at high concentrations | Single topical Menthol application | Agree | 1 | – |
c | 68 | (4) Health effects | Requires specialist training for safe administration | Single topical Menthol application | Agree | 3 | When the product is not produced by a food or medically screened national or international standard (i.e., in a lab from "Raw" ingredients). If products not used as instructed by manufacturer. Use of food-grade menthol. Caution required (e.g. refer to specialist when not using a commercially available product) |
d | 69 | (4) Health effects | Use is widespread in sporting activities | Single topical Menthol application | Agree | 1 | – |
e | 70 | (4) Health effects | Is safe at low concentrations | Repeated topical Menthol application | Agree | 1 | – |
f | 71 | (4) Health effects | Is harmful at high concentrations | Repeated topical Menthol application | Agree | 2 | |
g | 73 | (4) Health effects | Requires specialist training for safe administration | Repeated topical Menthol Application | Agree | 3 | When the product is not produced by a food or medically screened national or international standard (i.e., in a lab from "Raw" ingredients). If products not used as instructed by manufacturer. Use of food-grade menthol. Caution required (e.g., refer to specialist when not using a commercially available product) |
h | 74 | (4) Health effects | Use is widespread in sporting activities | Repeated topical Menthol Application | Disagree | 1 |
Item | Question no. | Domain | Context | Statement | Agree/disagree | Round achieved | Caveat |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
a | 75 | (5) Spirit of the sport | Has the potential to enhance or is known to enhance sport performance | Single topical Menthol application | Agree | 1 | – |
b | 76 | (5) Spirit of the sport | It represents an actual or potential health risk to the participant | Single topical Menthol application | Agree | 3 | Yes, we referred to U.K. toxic substance database report and published cases. Add delimitations around likely concentration for use in sport |
c | 77 | (5) Spirit of the sport | It violates the spirit of the sport | Single topical Menthol application | Disagree | 1 | |
d | 78 | (5) Spirit of the sport | Gives an unfair advantage | Single topical Menthol application | Disagree | 1 | |
e | 79 | (5) Spirit of the sport | Has the potential to enhance or is known to enhance sport performance | Repeated topical Menthol Application | Agree | 1 | – |
f | 80 | (5) Spirit of the sport | It represents an actual or potential health risk to the participant | Repeated topical Menthol application | Agree | 2 | |
g | 81 | (5) Spirit of the sport | It violates the spirit of the sport | Repeated topical Menthol application | Disagree | 1 | |
h | 82 | (5) Spirit of the sport | Gives an unfair advantage | Repeated topical Menthol application | Disagree | 1 |
Item | Question no. | Domain | Context | Statement | Agree/disagree | Round achieved | Caveat |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
a | 83 | (6) Levels of Evidence | Laboratory settings | The effects of single topical Menthol Application have most been established in: | Agree | 1 | – |
b | 85 | (6) Levels of Evidence | With the presence of adequate controls | The effects of single topical Menthol Application have most been established in: | Agree | 1 | – |
c | 87 | (6) Levels of Evidence | In within Subject Designs | The effects of single topical Menthol Application have most been established in: | Agree | 1 | – |
d | 90 | (6) Levels of Evidence | Laboratory settings | The effects of repeated topical Menthol Application have most been established in: | Agree | 1 | – |
e | 94 | (6) Levels of Evidence | In within Subject Designs | The effects of repeated topical Menthol Application have most been established in: | Agree | 1 | – |
Item | Question no. | Domain | Context | Statement | Agree/disagree | Round achieved | Caveat |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
a | 11 | (1) Activity type | Endurance (e.g., athletic exercise efforts lasting > 2.5 min) | Repeated occasions of Menthol rinsing enhance the performance of this activity | Agree | 1 | – |
b | 30 | (2) Population | Recreationally active | Repeated occasions of Menthol rinsing enhance the performance of this population | Agree | 1 | – |
c | 31 | (2) Population | Trained | Repeated occasions of Menthol rinsing enhance the performance of this population | Agree | 1 | – |
d | 34 | (2) Population | Males | Repeated occasions of Menthol rinsing enhance the performance of this population | Agree | 1 | – |
Item | Question no. | Domain | Context | Statement | Agree/disagree | Round achieved | Caveat |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
a | 38 | (3) Experimental effects | Lowers thermal sensation (i.e. participants feel cooler on topical application) | Single occasions of Menthol Rinsing reliably induces the following experimental effects during exercise in the heat | Agree | 1 | – |
b | 51 | (3) Experimental effects | Improves thermal discomfort (i.e., participants feel more comfortable) | Repeated occasions of Menthol Rinsing reliably induces the following experimental effects during exercise in the heat | Agree | 1 | – |
c | 52 | (3) Experimental effects | Lowers thermal sensation (i.e., participants feel cooler on topical application) | Repeated occasions of Menthol Rinsing reliably induces the following experimental effects during exercise in the heat | Agree | 1 | – |
d | 53 | (3) Experimental effects | Lowers rating of perceived exertion for a given workload | Repeated occasions of Menthol Rinsing reliably induces the following experimental effects during exercise in the heat | Agree | 1 | – |
e | 54 | (3) Experimental effects | Alters behavioural thermoregulation (i.e., participants can exercise for longer/work at a higher intensity) | Repeated occasions of Menthol Rinsing reliably induces the following experimental effects during exercise in the heat | Agree | 1 | – |
f | 57 | (3) Experimental effects | Alters skin temperature | Repeated occasions of Menthol Rinsing reliably induces the following experimental effects during exercise in the heat | Disagree | 1 | – |
g | 59 | (3) Experimental effects | Increases the risk of heat illness | Repeated occasions of Menthol Rinsing reliably induces the following experimental effects during exercise in the heat | Agree | 3 | Urge caution when using particularly in elite/highly motivated groups |
h | 64 | (3) Experimental effects | Is concentration-dependent for the magnitude of its experimental effects | Repeated occasions of Menthol Rinsing reliably induces the following experimental effects | Agree | 2 | – |
Item | Question no. | Domain | Context | Statement | Agree/disagree | Round achieved | Caveat |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
a | 69 | (4) Health effects | Use is widespread in sporting activities | Single occasions of Menthol rinsing | Disagree | 2 | – |
b | 70 | (4) Health effects | Is safe at low concentrations | Repeated occasions of Menthol rinsing | Agree | 1 | – |
c | 73 | (4) Health effects | Requires specialist training for safe preparation and administration | Repeated occasions of Menthol rinsing | Agree | 3 | When the product is not produced by a food or medically screened national or international standard (i.e. in a lab from "Raw" ingredients). If products not used as instructed by manufacturer. Use of food-grade menthol. Caution required for preparing mouth rinses as no commercial product is available (e.g., refer to dietician/nutritionists/specialists) |
d | 74 | (4) Health effects | Use is widespread in sporting activities | Repeated occasions of Menthol rinsing | Disagree | 2 | – |
Item | Question no. | Domain | Context | Statement | Agree/disagree | Round achieved | Caveat |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
a | 79 | (5) Spirit of the sport | Has the potential to enhance or is known to enhance sport performance | Repeated occasions of Menthol rinsing | Agree | 1 | – |
b | 80 | (5) Spirit of the sport | It represents a potential risk to the participant | Repeated occasions of Menthol rinsing | Agree | 3 | Yes, we referred to U.K. toxic substance database report and published cases. Add delimitations around likely concentration for use in sport |
c | 81 | (5) Spirit of the sport | It violates the spirit of the sport | Repeated occasions of Menthol rinsing | Disagree | 1 | – |
d | 82 | (5) Spirit of the sport | Gives an unfair advantage | Repeated occasions of Menthol rinsing | Disagree | 1 | – |
e | 83 | (6) Levels of evidence | Laboratory settings | The effects of single occasions of Menthol rinsing have most been established in: | Agree | 1 | – |
f | 90 | (6) Levels of evidence | Laboratory settings | The effects of repeated Menthol rinsing have most been established in: | Agree | 1 | – |
g | 92 | (6) Levels of evidence | With the presence of adequate controls | The effects of repeated Menthol rinsing have most been established in: | Agree | 1 | – |
h | 94 | (6) Levels of evidence | In within-subject designs | The effects of repeated Menthol rinsing have most been established in: | Agree | 1 | – |
4 Discussion
4.1 Activity Type
4.1.1 Section Summary and Practical Recommendations
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Topically applied menthol can improve TTE performance for both single (high concentration) and repeated topical applications.
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Orally applied menthol improves TTE and TT performance when used repeatedly throughout the exercise bout; there is less supporting evidence regarding singular topical application.
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There is not sufficient evidence currently to support menthol’s topical application in team-based sports; this is a promising avenue for future research.
4.2 Population
4.2.1 Section Summary and Practical Recommendations
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Menthol research has largely been conducted on male cohorts who are recreationally active or trained.
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Research on female participants is to be encouraged due to potential variations in regional adiposity and sweat rates amongst other factors.
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The use of menthol by elite athletes is currently not well supported; however, its use is unlikely to be detrimental (especially when mouth rinsing unless published protocols regarding frequency and concentration are exceeded)
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Individual effectiveness in representative conditions for forthcoming events should be trialled in the build-up to major competitions to identify athlete specific benefits.
4.3 Experimental Effects
4.3.1 Section Summary and Practical Recommendations
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Single and repeated menthol topical applications and mouth rinsing reliably improve thermal sensation and, to a lesser extent, thermal comfort and RPE during exercise in a hot environment.
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Menthol topical application may benefit activities where heat tolerance is limiting, but may increase the risk of heat-related illness.
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Thermoeffector change with menthol topical application is surface area, menthol concentration, and site-dependent, with the chest, face, and neck suggested as the most thermally sensitive areas. No such direct changes to body temperature regulation are evident with mouth rinsing.
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Even at low concentrations, menthol topical application evokes changes in thermoeffector responses, which may increase the risk of heat storage and have deleterious effects on prolonged exercise in the heat.
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Athletes should be familiar with testing protocols and these should be well practiced prior to competitive use. Awareness and education of the potential effects of menthol are critical.
4.4 Health Effects
4.4.1 Section Summary and Practical Recommendations
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Case reports exist highlighting potentially detrimental health effects.
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When used in a manner replicating peer-reviewed experimental work, topical and ingested (mouth rinsing) menthol is safe.
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For both single and repeated topical applications, topical menthol should be applied as directed in manufacturer guidelines.
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For both single and repeated uses, menthol mouth rinses should be prepared using food-grade substances provided with certification of purity in well-ventilated spaces.
4.5 Spirit of the Sport
4.5.1 Section Summary and Practical Recommendations
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Menthol is widely accessible and commercially available in various forms, and thus, it does not permit unfair sporting advantage to some potential users.
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Menthol topical application and mouth rinsing probably do not confer an unfair advantage.
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Menthol topical application and mouth rinsing do not violate the spirit of the sport.
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When using menthol, athletes should avoid combining menthol with other nutritional or pharmacological substances, which may render it ineffective, harmful, or give the potential for menthol to be contaminated with unapproved substances.
4.6 Levels of Evidence
4.6.1 Section Summary and Practical Recommendations
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Ensure adequate experimental design and blinding.
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Include a representative control condition.
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A true placebo is required.
4.7 Future Research Directions
4.7.1 Section Summary and Practical Recommendations
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Studies are required using menthol with elite athletes during exercise in the heat.
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Ecologically valid field-based research is required to support the abundant laboratory-based evidence.
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Further research is required among females of all training backgrounds.
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Further understanding of single or repeated mouth rinsing and the reasons for diminishing returns need to be clarified.