Background
Methods
Dataset description
Data processing
Statistical analyses
Effects of changing m, r and N parameters on ApEn and SampEn
Ability of ApEn and SampEn to discriminate between experimental groups
Behaviour of SampEn in different testing conditions
Results
Effects of changing m, r and N parameters on ApEn and SampEn
Ability of ApEn and SampEn to discriminate between experimental groups
Participant grouping and characteristics
One-way ANOVA | Descriptive statistics by group | Post hoc | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Young (n = 85) | Non-Fallers (n = 56) | Fallers (n = 18) | NF - Y | F - Y | F - NF | ||||||
Variable | F | p-value | Mean(SD) | Mean(SD) | Mean(SD) | MD | p-value | MD | P-value | MD | p-value |
Age, years | 722.3 | < 0.001 | 27.7(7.78) | 71.5(6.35) | 71.2(7.12) | 43.8 |
< 0.001
| 43.5 |
<0.001
| −0.3 | 0.984 |
Height, cm | 26.2 | < 0.001 | 166.8(8.75) | 157.8(8.73) | 155.2(6.16) | −9 |
< 0.001
| -11.6 |
<0.001
| −2.6 | 0.502 |
Weight, kg | 2.24 | 0.11 | 61.6(7.73) | 63.9(8.43) | 60(8.10) | 2.3 | 0.207 | -1.6 | 0.718 | −3.9 | 0.163 |
BMI, kg/m2 | 26.7 | < 0.001 | 22.2(2.82) | 25.7(2.97) | 24.9(2.84) | 3.5 |
< 0.001
| 2.7 |
0.001
| −0.8 | 0.540 |
Approximate entropy
One-way ANOVA | Descriptive statistics by group | Post-hoc | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Young (Y) | Non-Fallers (NF) | Fallers (F) | NF - Y | F - Y | F - NF | |||||||||
r
| F | p-value | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | MD | p-value | MD | p-value | MD | p-value |
m = 2
| ||||||||||||||
0.1 | 105.45 |
<0.001
| 0.628 | 0.129 | 0.705 | 0.108 | 0.723 | 0.138 | 0.078 |
<0.001
| 0.095 |
<0.001
| 0.017 | 0.178 |
0.15 | 119.31 |
<0.001
| 0.515 | 0.134 | 0.599 | 0.104 | 0.613 | 0.131 | 0.084 |
<0.001
| 0.099 |
<0.001
| 0.015 | 0.298 |
0.2 | 124.58 |
<0.001
| 0.424 | 0.136 | 0.512 | 0.110 | 0.527 | 0.133 | 0.088 |
<0.001
| 0.103 |
<0.001
| 0.015 | 0.280 |
0.25 | 126.90 |
<0.001
| 0.351 | 0.131 | 0.438 | 0.113 | 0.455 | 0.133 | 0.087 |
<0.001
| 0.104 |
<0.001
| 0.018 | 0.176 |
0.3 | 126.80 |
<0.001
| 0.293 | 0.121 | 0.374 | 0.110 | 0.394 | 0.129 | 0.081 |
<0.001
| 0.101 |
<0.001
| 0.019 | 0.093 |
0.35 | 125.88 |
<0.001
| 0.247 | 0.109 | 0.321 | 0.104 | 0.341 | 0.122 | 0.074 |
<0.001
| 0.094 |
<0.001
| 0.020 |
0.049
|
0.4 | 124.51 |
<0.001
| 0.211 | 0.098 | 0.277 | 0.096 | 0.297 | 0.113 | 0.066 |
<0.001
| 0.086 |
<0.001
| 0.020 |
0.024
|
0.45 | 123.46 |
<0.001
| 0.182 | 0.087 | 0.241 | 0.087 | 0.260 | 0.104 | 0.059 |
<0.001
| 0.078 |
<0.001
| 0.020 |
0.014
|
0.5 | 122.47 |
<0.001
| 0.159 | 0.077 | 0.211 | 0.079 | 0.229 | 0.094 | 0.052 |
<0.001
| 0.070 |
<0.001
| 0.019 |
0.009
|
m = 3
| ||||||||||||||
0.1 | 111.29 |
<0.001
| 0.526 | 0.109 | 0.597 | 0.094 | 0.600 | 0.114 | 0.071 |
<0.001
| 0.074 |
<0.001
| 0.003 | 0.939 |
0.15 | 118.46 |
<0.001
| 0.441 | 0.113 | 0.516 | 0.103 | 0.531 | 0.128 | 0.074 |
<0.001
| 0.090 |
<0.001
| 0.016 | 0.170 |
0.2 | 117.94 |
<0.001
| 0.374 | 0.106 | 0.441 | 0.093 | 0.459 | 0.117 | 0.068 |
<0.001
| 0.085 |
<0.001
| 0.017 | 0.080 |
0.25 | 121.98 |
<0.001
| 0.320 | 0.099 | 0.384 | 0.085 | 0.400 | 0.107 | 0.064 |
<0.001
| 0.080 |
<0.001
| 0.016 | 0.073 |
0.3 | 123.27 |
<0.001
| 0.277 | 0.094 | 0.338 | 0.081 | 0.353 | 0.099 | 0.061 |
<0.001
| 0.076 |
<0.001
| 0.015 | 0.088 |
0.35 | 125.37 |
<0.001
| 0.242 | 0.089 | 0.300 | 0.078 | 0.314 | 0.094 | 0.058 |
<0.001
| 0.073 |
<0.001
| 0.014 | 0.084 |
0.4 | 125.87 |
<0.001
| 0.212 | 0.084 | 0.267 | 0.075 | 0.282 | 0.089 | 0.055 |
<0.001
| 0.070 |
<0.001
| 0.014 | 0.064 |
0.45 | 125.41 |
<0.001
| 0.187 | 0.078 | 0.239 | 0.072 | 0.253 | 0.084 | 0.052 |
<0.001
| 0.066 |
<0.001
| 0.014 | 0.057 |
0.5 | 124.92 |
<0.001
| 0.166 | 0.073 | 0.214 | 0.068 | 0.228 | 0.079 | 0.048 |
<0.001
| 0.062 |
<0.001
| 0.014 |
0.043
|
m = 4
| ||||||||||||||
0.1 | 88.78 |
<0.001
| 0.449 | 0.072 | 0.491 | 0.052 | 0.477 | 0.064 | 0.042 |
<0.001
| 0.028 |
<0.001
| -0.014 |
0.013
|
0.15 | 124.48 |
<0.001
| 0.404 | 0.099 | 0.472 | 0.086 | 0.477 | 0.105 | 0.068 |
<0.001
| 0.073 |
<0.001
| 0.005 | 0.785 |
0.2 | 121.79 |
<0.001
| 0.348 | 0.100 | 0.415 | 0.091 | 0.428 | 0.111 | 0.067 |
<0.001
| 0.080 |
<0.001
| 0.013 | 0.203 |
0.25 | 121.37 |
<0.001
| 0.301 | 0.094 | 0.362 | 0.085 | 0.378 | 0.106 | 0.062 |
<0.001
| 0.077 |
<0.001
| 0.016 | 0.075 |
0.3 | 121.01 |
<0.001
| 0.262 | 0.087 | 0.319 | 0.078 | 0.334 | 0.097 | 0.057 |
<0.001
| 0.072 |
<0.001
| 0.015 | 0.054 |
0.35 | 122.14 |
<0.001
| 0.231 | 0.080 | 0.283 | 0.073 | 0.298 | 0.089 | 0.052 |
<0.001
| 0.067 |
<0.001
| 0.015 |
0.045
|
0.4 | 123.08 |
<0.001
| 0.205 | 0.075 | 0.254 | 0.068 | 0.268 | 0.082 | 0.049 |
<0.001
| 0.063 |
<0.001
| 0.014 |
0.041
|
0.45 | 122.91 |
<0.001
| 0.182 | 0.070 | 0.228 | 0.064 | 0.241 | 0.076 | 0.046 |
<0.001
| 0.059 |
<0.001
| 0.013 |
0.041
|
0.5 | 123.17 |
<0.001
| 0.163 | 0.066 | 0.206 | 0.060 | 0.219 | 0.071 | 0.043 |
<0.001
| 0.055 |
<0.001
| 0.013 |
0.036
|
m = 5
| ||||||||||||||
0.1 | 15.41 |
<0.001
| 0.365 | 0.046 | 0.372 | 0.045 | 0.352 | 0.054 | 0.007 |
0.009
| -0.013 |
<0.001
| -0.020 |
<0.001
|
0.15 | 119.49 |
<0.001
| 0.364 | 0.076 | 0.415 | 0.058 | 0.410 | 0.071 | 0.051 |
<0.001
| 0.046 |
<0.001
| -0.005 | 0.634 |
0.2 | 126.02 |
<0.001
| 0.326 | 0.088 | 0.386 | 0.076 | 0.393 | 0.093 | 0.060 |
<0.001
| 0.066 |
<0.001
| 0.006 | 0.604 |
0.25 | 124.00 |
<0.001
| 0.286 | 0.087 | 0.345 | 0.078 | 0.357 | 0.096 | 0.059 |
<0.001
| 0.070 |
<0.001
| 0.012 | 0.192 |
0.3 | 122.77 |
<0.001
| 0.252 | 0.083 | 0.307 | 0.075 | 0.320 | 0.093 | 0.055 |
<0.001
| 0.068 |
<0.001
| 0.013 | 0.097 |
0.35 | 122.05 |
<0.001
| 0.223 | 0.077 | 0.274 | 0.071 | 0.287 | 0.086 | 0.051 |
<0.001
| 0.064 |
<0.001
| 0.014 | 0.061 |
0.4 | 122.10 |
<0.001
| 0.198 | 0.072 | 0.246 | 0.066 | 0.259 | 0.080 | 0.047 |
<0.001
| 0.060 |
<0.001
| 0.013 |
0.045
|
0.45 | 121.42 |
<0.001
| 0.178 | 0.067 | 0.221 | 0.062 | 0.234 | 0.074 | 0.044 |
<0.001
| 0.056 |
<0.001
| 0.013 |
0.036
|
0.5 | 121.54 |
<0.001
| 0.160 | 0.062 | 0.200 | 0.058 | 0.213 | 0.069 | 0.041 |
<0.001
| 0.053 |
<0.001
| 0.012 |
0.029
|
Sample entropy
One-way ANOVA | Descriptive statistics by group | Post-hoc | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Young (Y) | Non-Fallers (NF) | Fallers (F) | NF - Y | F - Y | F - NF | |||||||||
r
| F | p-value | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | MD | p-value | MD | p-value | MD | p-value |
m = 2
| ||||||||||||||
0.1 | 128.20 |
<0.001
| 0.583 | 0.158 | 0.689 | 0.140 | 0.718 | 0.179 | 0.106 |
<0.001
| 0.134 |
<0.001
| 0.028 | 0.051 |
0.15 | 138.04 |
<0.001
| 0.447 | 0.136 | 0.542 | 0.116 | 0.562 | 0.146 | 0.094 |
<0.001
| 0.115 |
<0.001
| 0.020 | 0.125 |
0.2 | 139.12 |
<0.001
| 0.358 | 0.124 | 0.445 | 0.109 | 0.463 | 0.133 | 0.087 |
<0.001
| 0.105 |
<0.001
| 0.018 | 0.149 |
0.25 | 137.79 |
<0.001
| 0.294 | 0.113 | 0.373 | 0.102 | 0.390 | 0.123 | 0.080 |
<0.001
| 0.097 |
<0.001
| 0.017 | 0.116 |
0.3 | 134.96 |
<0.001
| 0.245 | 0.101 | 0.316 | 0.095 | 0.333 | 0.114 | 0.071 |
<0.001
| 0.088 |
<0.001
| 0.017 | 0.082 |
0.35 | 132.15 |
<0.001
| 0.208 | 0.090 | 0.271 | 0.087 | 0.288 | 0.104 | 0.063 |
<0.001
| 0.079 |
<0.001
| 0.016 | 0.058 |
0.4 | 129.41 |
<0.001
| 0.179 | 0.080 | 0.235 | 0.079 | 0.250 | 0.095 | 0.056 |
<0.001
| 0.071 |
<0.001
| 0.016 |
0.040
|
0.45 | 126.97 |
<0.001
| 0.156 | 0.071 | 0.205 | 0.071 | 0.220 | 0.085 | 0.049 |
<0.001
| 0.064 |
<0.001
| 0.015 |
0.030
|
0.5 | 125.08 |
<0.001
| 0.137 | 0.063 | 0.181 | 0.064 | 0.194 | 0.077 | 0.044 |
<0.001
| 0.057 |
<0.001
| 0.013 |
0.025
|
m = 3
| ||||||||||||||
0.1 | 126.15 |
<0.001
| 0.531 | 0.163 | 0.643 | 0.156 | 0.672 | 0.199 | 0.112 |
<0.001
| 0.141 |
<0.001
| 0.029 | 0.064 |
0.15 | 132.96 |
<0.001
| 0.403 | 0.125 | 0.491 | 0.120 | 0.515 | 0.152 | 0.088 |
<0.001
| 0.113 |
<0.001
| 0.025 |
0.037
|
0.2 | 133.72 |
<0.001
| 0.327 | 0.106 | 0.401 | 0.098 | 0.421 | 0.124 | 0.074 |
<0.001
| 0.094 |
<0.001
| 0.020 |
0.041
|
0.25 | 135.48 |
<0.001
| 0.274 | 0.094 | 0.339 | 0.085 | 0.356 | 0.107 | 0.065 |
<0.001
| 0.082 |
<0.001
| 0.017 | 0.051 |
0.3 | 134.96 |
<0.001
| 0.234 | 0.085 | 0.294 | 0.077 | 0.308 | 0.096 | 0.059 |
<0.001
| 0.074 |
<0.001
| 0.015 | 0.069 |
0.35 | 134.70 |
<0.001
| 0.203 | 0.078 | 0.257 | 0.071 | 0.270 | 0.087 | 0.054 |
<0.001
| 0.067 |
<0.001
| 0.013 | 0.073 |
0.4 | 133.25 |
<0.001
| 0.178 | 0.071 | 0.227 | 0.066 | 0.240 | 0.080 | 0.050 |
<0.001
| 0.062 |
<0.001
| 0.012 | 0.066 |
0.45 | 131.57 |
<0.001
| 0.157 | 0.066 | 0.202 | 0.062 | 0.214 | 0.074 | 0.045 |
<0.001
| 0.057 |
<0.001
| 0.012 | 0.061 |
0.5 | 129.87 |
<0.001
| 0.139 | 0.060 | 0.181 | 0.058 | 0.192 | 0.069 | 0.042 |
<0.001
| 0.053 |
<0.001
| 0.011 | 0.053 |
m = 4
| ||||||||||||||
0.1 | 128.60 |
<0.001
| 0.508 | 0.161 | 0.621 | 0.154 | 0.647 | 0.201 | 0.113 |
<0.001
| 0.140 |
<0.001
| 0.026 | 0.102 |
0.15 | 133.16 |
<0.001
| 0.386 | 0.126 | 0.476 | 0.122 | 0.498 | 0.155 | 0.090 |
<0.001
| 0.112 |
<0.001
| 0.022 | 0.072 |
0.2 | 132.77 |
<0.001
| 0.313 | 0.105 | 0.387 | 0.101 | 0.407 | 0.126 | 0.074 |
<0.001
| 0.094 |
<0.001
| 0.019 | 0.051 |
0.25 | 133.28 |
<0.001
| 0.263 | 0.091 | 0.326 | 0.086 | 0.344 | 0.108 | 0.064 |
<0.001
| 0.081 |
<0.001
| 0.018 |
0.039
|
0.3 | 132.67 |
<0.001
| 0.226 | 0.081 | 0.282 | 0.076 | 0.297 | 0.095 | 0.056 |
<0.001
| 0.072 |
<0.001
| 0.015 |
0.042
|
0.35 | 132.30 |
<0.001
| 0.196 | 0.073 | 0.247 | 0.068 | 0.261 | 0.084 | 0.051 |
<0.001
| 0.064 |
<0.001
| 0.014 |
0.046
|
0.4 | 131.41 |
<0.001
| 0.173 | 0.067 | 0.219 | 0.062 | 0.231 | 0.076 | 0.046 |
<0.001
| 0.058 |
<0.001
| 0.012 |
0.049
|
0.45 | 130.20 |
<0.001
| 0.154 | 0.061 | 0.196 | 0.057 | 0.207 | 0.070 | 0.042 |
<0.001
| 0.053 |
<0.001
| 0.011 |
0.047
|
0.5 | 129.18 |
<0.001
| 0.137 | 0.056 | 0.176 | 0.053 | 0.186 | 0.064 | 0.039 |
<0.001
| 0.049 |
<0.001
| 0.011 |
0.045
|
m = 5
| ||||||||||||||
0.1 | 130.78 |
<0.001
| 0.484 | 0.153 | 0.592 | 0.150 | 0.625 | 0.204 | 0.109 |
<0.001
| 0.141 |
<0.001
| 0.032 |
0.027
|
0.15 | 133.99 |
<0.001
| 0.371 | 0.122 | 0.458 | 0.117 | 0.481 | 0.154 | 0.087 |
<0.001
| 0.110 |
<0.001
| 0.023 | 0.054 |
0.2 | 133.48 |
<0.001
| 0.303 | 0.103 | 0.376 | 0.098 | 0.395 | 0.125 | 0.073 |
<0.001
| 0.092 |
<0.001
| 0.019 | 0.053 |
0.25 | 133.36 |
<0.001
| 0.255 | 0.089 | 0.318 | 0.085 | 0.335 | 0.107 | 0.063 |
<0.001
| 0.080 |
<0.001
| 0.017 |
0.045
|
0.3 | 132.80 |
<0.001
| 0.220 | 0.079 | 0.275 | 0.075 | 0.290 | 0.094 | 0.055 |
<0.001
| 0.071 |
<0.001
| 0.015 |
0.040
|
0.35 | 131.65 |
<0.001
| 0.192 | 0.071 | 0.241 | 0.068 | 0.255 | 0.084 | 0.050 |
<0.001
| 0.063 |
<0.001
| 0.014 |
0.043
|
0.4 | 130.43 |
<0.001
| 0.169 | 0.065 | 0.214 | 0.062 | 0.226 | 0.075 | 0.045 |
<0.001
| 0.057 |
<0.001
| 0.012 |
0.046
|
0.45 | 128.72 |
<0.001
| 0.151 | 0.059 | 0.191 | 0.056 | 0.203 | 0.068 | 0.041 |
<0.001
| 0.052 |
<0.001
| 0.011 |
0.042
|
0.5 | 127.30 |
<0.001
| 0.135 | 0.055 | 0.172 | 0.052 | 0.183 | 0.062 | 0.037 |
<0.001
| 0.048 |
<0.001
| 0.010 |
0.041
|
Linear measures
Descriptive statistics by group | Post hoc | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Young (Y) | Non-Fallers (NF) | Fallers (F) | NF-Y | F-Y | F-NF | |||||||
Variable | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | MD | p-value | MD | p-value | MD | p-value |
Total displacement (cm) | 110.479 | 71.097 | 152.342 | 96.961 | 162.718 | 102.772 | 41.863 |
<0.001
| 52.239 |
<0.001
| 10.376 | 0.266 |
Standard deviation, AP (cm) | 0.730 | 0.347 | 0.833 | 0.434 | 0.866 | 0.446 | 0.103 |
<0.001
| 0.136 |
<0.001
| 0.033 | 0.519 |
Standard deviation, ML (cm) | 0.511 | 0.279 | 0.639 | 0.401 | 0.683 | 0.440 | 0.128 |
<0.001
| 0.172 |
<0.001
| 0.044 | 0.251 |
Amplitude, AP (cm) | 4.017 | 2.006 | 4.810 | 2.646 | 5.103 | 2.684 | 0.793 |
<0.001
| 1.086 |
<0.001
| 0.293 | 0.247 |
Amplitude, ML (cm) | 2.930 | 1.669 | 3.663 | 2.357 | 3.889 | 2.575 | 0.733 |
<0.001
| 0.959 |
<0.001
| 0.226 | 0.337 |
Total Mean Velocity, (cm/s) | 1.841 | 1.185 | 2.539 | 1.616 | 2.712 | 1.713 | 0.698 |
<0.001
| 0.871 |
<0.001
| 0.173 | 0.266 |
Mean Velocity, AP (cm) | 1.313 | 0.862 | 1.928 | 1.212 | 2.118 | 1.343 | 0.615 |
<0.001
| 0.805 |
<0.001
| 0.190 | 0.058 |
Mean Velocity, ML (cm) | 1.013 | 0.668 | 1.261 | 0.864 | 1.273 | 0.846 | 0.248 |
<0.001
| 0.260 |
<0.001
| 0.012 | 0.981 |
Area (cm2) | 8.270 | 7.481 | 12.71 | 13.015 | 14.25 | 14.326 | 4.440 |
<0.001
| 5.980 |
<0.001
| 1.540 | 0.155 |