Background
Methods
Data source
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‘X71’ for intentional self-harm by drowning and submersion
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‘X92’ for assault by drowning and submersion
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‘W65’ for drowning and submersion while in bath-tub
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‘W66’ for drowning and submersion following fall into bath-tub
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‘W67’ for drowning and submersion while in swimming-pool
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‘W68’ for drowning and submersion following fall into swimming-pool
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‘W69’ for drowning and submersion while in natural water
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‘W70’ for drowning and submersion following fall into natural water
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‘W73’ for other specified drowning and submersion
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‘W74’ for unspecified drowning and submersion
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‘V90’ for accident to watercraft causing drowning and submersion
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‘V92’ for water-transport-related drowning and submersion without accident to watercraft
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‘Y21’ for drowning and submersion, undetermined intent
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Gender
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Age group
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State/territory of usual residence
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Postcode of usual residence
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Country of birth of deceased (classified into ‘Australia’ and ‘overseas’)
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Date of death
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First Peoples of Australia, in this study refers to “Aboriginal people”, “Torres Strait Islander people”, and “Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people”. Individuals who are not identified as these categories are classified as “non-Indigenous people” [22]
Analysis
Ethics
Results
Year | Intentional drowning | Unintentional drowning | Water-transport related drowning | Undetermined intent drowning | All drowning deaths | |||||
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Number of deaths | Mortality rate (per 100,000)a | Number of deaths | Mortality rate (per 100,000)a | Number of deaths | Mortality rate (per 100,000)a | Number of deaths | Mortality rate (per 100,000)a | Number of deaths | Mortality rate (per 100,000)a | |
2006 | 46 | 0.22 | 209 | 1.02 | 27 | 0.13 | 16 | 0.08 | 298 | 1.46 |
2007 | 47 | 0.23 | 191 | 0.92 | 23 | 0.11 | 25 | 0.12 | 286 | 1.37 |
2008 | 48 | 0.23 | 184 | 0.87 | 20 | 0.09 | 32 | 0.15 | 284 | 1.34 |
2009 | 54 | 0.25 | 201 | 0.93 | 37 | 0.17 | 21 | 0.10 | 313 | 1.44 |
2010 | 46 | 0.21 | 221 | 1.00 | 34 | 0.15 | 21 | 0.10 | 322 | 1.46 |
2011 | 48 | 0.21 | 167 | 0.75 | 90 | 0.40 | 17 | 0.08 | 322 | 1.44 |
2012 | 50 | 0.22 | 194 | 0.85 | 49 | 0.22 | 8 | 0.04 | 301 | 1.32 |
2013 | 58 | 0.25 | 212 | 0.92 | 44 | 0.19 | 11 | 0.05 | 325 | 1.40 |
2014 | 53 | 0.23 | 186 | 0.79 | 18 | 0.08 | 22 | 0.09 | 279 | 1.19 |
Total | 450 | 0.23b | 1765 | 0.89b | 342 | 0.17b | 173 | 0.09b | 2730 | 1.38b |
ICD 10 codes | n | % | Explanation |
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Intentional self-harm by drowning | |||
X71 | 118 | 26.2 | Intentional self-harm by drowning and submersion |
X71.0 | 81 | 18.0 | Intentional self-harm by drowning and submersion while in bathtub |
X71.1-X71.3 | 5 | 1.1 | Intentional self-harm by drowning and submersion while in swimming pool, after jumping into swimming pool, and in natural water |
X71.8 | 225 | 50.0 | Intentional self-harm by drowning and submersion in other specified water |
X71.9 | 6 | 1.3 | Intentional self-harm by drowning and submersion in unspecified water |
Total | 435 | 96.7 | |
Assault by drowning | |||
X92, X92.0. X92.8 | 15 | 3.3 | Assault by drowning and submersion in bathtub and in other specified water |
Total for all intentional drowning deaths | 450 | 100.0 |
The rates and trends of drowning deaths in Australia between 2006 and 2014
Socio-demographic characteristics as risk factors for fatal intentional drowning
Intentional drowning | Unintentional drowning | Intentional drowning versus unintentional drowning | Water-transport related | Undetermined intent | |||||||||
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Total cases (N = 450) | Annual mortality rate per 100,000 | Relative Risk (CI) | Total cases (N = 1765) | Annual mortality rate per 100,000 | Relative Risk (CI) | χ2 (p-value) | Total cases (N = 342) | Annual mortality rate per 100,000 | Relative Risk (CI) | Total cases (N = 173) | Annual mortality rate per 100,000 | Relative Risk (CI) | |
Sex | |||||||||||||
Male | 278 | 0.28 | 1.6 (1.4–2.0) | 1370 | 1.39 | 3.5 (3.1–3.9) | 47.3 (p < 0.001)a | 290 | 0.29 | 5.6 (4.2–7.6) | 125 | 0.13 | 2.6 (1.9–3.7) |
Female | 172 | 0.17 | 1* | 395 | 0.40 | 1* | 52 | 0.05 | 1* | 48 | 0.05 | 1* | |
Age Group | |||||||||||||
0–4 years | 6 | 0.02 | 1* | 213 | 1.65 | 1* | 53.1 (p < 0.001)b | 9 | 0.07 | 1* | 5 | 0.02 | 1* |
5–14 years | 0.01 | 0.5 (0.1–2.6) | 88 | 0.35 | 0.2 (0.2–0.3) | 17.1 (p < 0.001)b | 15 | 0.06 | 0.9 (0.4–2.0) | 0.01 | 0.8 (0.1–4.7) | ||
15–24 years | 22 | 0.08 | 3.5 (1.0–11.6) | 203 | 0.75 | 0.5 (0.4–0.6) | 17.2 (p < 0.001)b | 49 | 0.18 | 2.6 (1.3–5.3) | 19 | 0.07 | 4.5 (1.1–19.3) |
25–34 years | 43 | 0.15 | 6.5 (2.0–21.0) | 265 | 0.93 | 0.6 (0.5–0.7) | 8.9 (p = 0.002)b | 55 | 0.19 | 2.8 (1.4–5.6) | 19 | 0.07 | 4.3 (1.0–18.6) |
35–44 years | 52 | 0.18 | 7.9 (2.5–25.4) | 205 | 0.73 | 0.4 (0.4–0.5) | 0.001 (p = 1.000) | 69 | 0.24 | 3.5 (1.8–7.0) | 26 | 0.09 | 6.0 (1.4–25.1) |
45–54 years | 86 | 0.32 | 13.8 (4.4–43.5) | 207 | 0.77 | 0.5 (0.4–0.6) | 17.0 (p < 0.001)b | 52 | 0.19 | 2.8 (1.4–5.6) | 28 | 0.10 | 6.7 (1.6–28.2) |
55–64 years | 81 | 0.36 | 15.6 (4.9–49.4) | 214 | 0.96 | 0.6 (0.5–0.7) | 10.7 (p = 0.001)b | 41 | 0.18 | 2.6 (1.3–5.4) | 30 | 0.13 | 8.7 (2.1–36.3) |
65–74 years | 66 | 0.45 | 19.3 (6.1–61.3) | 163 | 1.11 | 0.7 (0.6–0.8) | 11.4 (p = 0.001)b | 32 | 0.22 | 3.1 (1.5–6.5) | 21 | 0.14 | 9.2 (2.2–39.3) |
75 years and over | 94 | 0.76 | 32.6 (10.3–102.8) | 207 | 1.67 | 1.0 (0.8–1.2) | 25.6 (p < 0.001)b | 20 | 0.16 | 2.3 (1.1–5.1) | 25 | 0.20 | 13.0 (3.1–54.8) |
State/territory of usual residence | |||||||||||||
New South Wales | 131 | 0.20 | 1.7 (0.6–4.5) | 599 | 0.93 | 1.4 (0.9–2.1) | 3.8 (p = 0.056) | 76 | 0.12 | 1.3 (0.4–4.1) | 74 | 0.12 | 1.9 (0.5–7.7) |
Victoria | 98 | 0.20 | 1.6 (0.6–4.4) | 265 | 0.54 | 0.8 (0.5–1.2) | 12.1 (p = 0.001)c | 27 | 0.05 | 0.6 (0.2–2.0) | 43 | 0.09 | 1.4 (0.4–5.9) |
Queensland | 96 | 0.24 | 2.0 (0.7–5.4) | 432 | 1.09 | 1.6 (1.1–2.5) | 2.0 (p = 0.173) | 76 | 0.19 | 2.1 (0.7–6.6) | 20 | 0.05 | 0.8 (0.2–3.5) |
South Australia | 27 | 0.18 | 1.5 (0.5–4.3) | 92 | 0.63 | 0.9 (0.6–1.5) | 0.4 (p = 0.484) | 18 | 0.12 | 1.3 (0.4–4.6) | 13 | 0.09 | 1.5 (0.3–6.4) |
Western Australia | 66 | 0.32 | 2.6 (1.0–7.2) | 224 | 1.08 | 1.6 (1.0–2.5) | 1.2 (p = 0.273) | 110 | 0.53 | 5.8 (1.8–18.2) | 9 | 0.04 | 0.7 (0.2–3.3) |
Tasmania | 24 | 0.53 | 4.3 (1.5–12.4) | 66 | 1.45 | 2.2 (1.3–3.5) | 2.3 (p = 0.140) | 25 | 0.55 | 6.0 (1.8–19.8) | 14 | 0.26 | 4.3 (1.0–19.2) |
Northern Territory | 8 | 0.19 | 1.6 (0.4–6.4) | 64 | 3.12 | 4.6 (2.9–7.5) | 9.0 (p = 0.001)c | 10 | 0.34 | 3.7 (1.0–14.3) | 0.00 | 0.0 (UTBC) | |
Australian Capital Territory | 0.18 | 1* | 22 | 0.67 | 1* | 0.4 (p = 0.632) | 0.09 | 1* | 0.06 | 1* | |||
Remoteness of usual residence | |||||||||||||
Major Cities | 314 | 0.23 | 4.0 (0.6–28.6) | 971 | 0.70 | 0.3 (0.2–0.4) | 32.1 (p < 0.001)e | 122 | 0.09 | 0.2 (0.1–0.3) | 97 | 0.07 | 0.6 (0.2–2.5) |
Inner Regional | 86 | 0.24 | 4.2 (0.6–30.0) | 338 | 0.93 | 0.4 (0.3–0.6) | 0.0 (p = 1.000) | 63 | 0.17 | 0.3 (0.2–0.7) | 39 | 0.11 | 0.9 (0.2–3.9) |
Outer Regional | 45 | 0.23 | 4.1 (0.6–29.9) | 229 | 1.27 | 0.6 (0.4–0.8) | 4.4 (p = 0.036) | 49 | 0.27 | 0.5 (0.3–1.1) | 29 | 0.14 | 1.2 (0.3–5.2) |
Remote | 0.07 | 1.3 (0.1–14.0) | 45 | 1.60 | 0.7 (0.5–1.1) | 7.7 (p = 0.003)e | 13 | 0.46 | 0.9 (0.4–2.1) | 0.07 | 0.6 (0.1–4.5) | ||
Very Remote | 0.06 | 1* | 40 | 2.26 | 1* | 8.2 (p = 0.001)e | 9 | 0.51 | 1* | 0.11 | 1* | ||
Indigenous identification | |||||||||||||
First Peoples of Australia | NS | 0.06 | 1* | 97 | 1.96 | 1* | 19.398 (p < 0.001) a | 11 | 0.22 | 1* | 7 | 0.14 | 1* |
Non-Indigenous | 439 | 0.25 | 4.1 (1.3–12.7) | 1629 | 0.91 | 0.5 (0.4–0.6) | 289 | 0.16 | 0.7 (0.4–1.3) | 163 | 0.09 | 0.7 (0.3–1.4) |
Intentional drowning | Unintentional drowning | Intentional drowning versus unintentional drowning | |||||
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Total cases (N = 450) | Annual mortality rate per 100,000 | Relative Risk (CI) | Total cases (N = 1765) | Annual mortality rate per 100,000 | Relative Risk (CI) | χ2 (p-value) | |
Season | |||||||
Summer | 139 | 0.28 | 1.5 (1.1–1.9) | 692 | 1.42 | 1.6 (1.5–1.9) | 10.6 (p = 0.001)a |
Autumn | 95 | 0.19 | 1* | 422 | 0.85 | 1* | 1.6 (p = 0.236) |
Winter | 102 | 0.20 | 1.1 (0.8–1.4) | 252 | 0.50 | 0.6 (0.5–0.7) | 18.8 (p < 0.001)a |
Spring | 114 | 0.23 | 1.2 (0.9–1.6) | 399 | 0.81 | 1.0 (0.8–1.1) | 1.5 (p = 0.234) |
Day of death | |||||||
Sunday | 63 | 0.03 | 1.4 (0.9–2.0) | 294 | 0.15 | 0.9 (0.8–1.1) | 1.9 (p = 0.196) |
Monday | 75 | 0.04 | 1.6 (1.1–2.4) | 211 | 0.11 | 0.7 (0.6–0.8) | 7.1 (p = 0.009) |
Tuesday | 65 | 0.03 | 1.4 (1.0–2.1) | 257 | 0.13 | 0.8 (0.7–0.9) | 0.0 (p = 1.000) |
Wednesday | 76 | 0.04 | 1.7 (1.2–2.4) | 229 | 0.12 | 0.7 (0.6–0.8) | 4.6 (p = 0.038) |
Thursday | 65 | 0.03 | 1.4 (1.0–2.1) | 236 | 0.12 | 0.7 (0.62–0.9) | 0.4 (p = 0.539) |
Friday | 60 | 0.03 | 1.3 (0.9–1.9) | 214 | 0.11 | 0.7 (0.6–0.8) | 0.5 (p = 0.472) |
Saturday | 46 | 0.02 | 1* | 324 | 0.16 | 1* | 17.5 (p < 0.001)b |
Day of week | |||||||
Weekend | 109 | 0.19 | 1* | 618 | 3.82 | 1* | 18.9 (p < 0.001)c |
Weekday | 341 | 0.24 | 3.1 (2.5–3.9) | 1147 | 1.14 | 1.9 (1.7–2.1) | |
Country of birth | |||||||
Australia | 261 | 0.18 | 1* | 1070 | 0.18 | 1* | 1.1 (p = 0.332) |
Overseas | 189 | 0.36 | 2.0 (1.7–2.4) | 695 | 0.36 | 1.8 (1.6–2.0) |
Category | n | % | |
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Mental disorders | Mental and behavioural disorders due to use of alcohol | 24 | 5.3 |
Mental and behavioural disorders due to use of other substances (tobacco, psychoactive substances, opioids, stimulants) | 10 | 2.2 | |
Schizophrenia | 5 | 1.1 | |
Bipolar affective disorder | 10 | 2.2 | |
Depressive episode | 69 | 15.3 | |
Other anxiety disorders | 11 | 2.4 | |
Others (Schizoaffective disorders, unspecified nonorganic psychosis, recurrent depressive disorder, eating disorder, specific personality disorders, pervasive developmental disorders, hyperkinetic disorders, unspecified dementia, unspecified organic or symptomatic mental disorder, mental disorder not otherwise specified) | 15 | 2.4 | |
Total | 144 | 32.0 | |
Emotional state | Other symptoms and signs involving emotional state | 12 | 2.7 |
Intentional self-poisoning by and exposure to antiepileptic, sedative-hypnotic, anti-parkinsonism, and psychotropic drugs, not elsewhere classified | 20 | 4.4 | |
Intentional self-poisoning by and exposure to diuretics and other and unspecified drugs, medicaments, and biological substances | 22 | 4.9 | |
Intentional self-poisoning by and exposure to others (non-opioid analgesics, antipyretics and anti-rheumatics, narcotics and psycho-dysleptics/hallucinogens not elsewhere classified, alcohol, gases and vapours) | 10 | 2.2 | |
Intentional self-harm by sharp objects and jumping from a high place | 7 | 1.6 | |
Total | 59 | 13.1 | |
Poisoning | Poisoning by non-opioid analgesics, antipyretics and anti-rheumatics | 6 | 1.3 |
Poisoning by narcotics and psycho-dysleptics/hallucinogens | 9 | 2.0 | |
Poisoning by antiepileptic, sedative-hypnotic, and anti-parkinsonism drugs | 40 | 8.9 | |
Poisoning by psychotropic drugs, not elsewhere classified | 24 | 5.3 | |
Poisoning (Poisoning by diuretics and other and unspecified drugs, medicaments, and biological substances) | 9 | 2.0 | |
Toxic effect of alcohol | 16 | ||
Total | 112 | 24.9 | |
Finding of drugs and other substances not normally found in blood | Finding of alcohol in blood | 18 | 4.0 |
Finding of psychotropic drug in blood | 22 | 4.9 | |
Finding of other substances (opiate drug, hallucinogen, steroid agent, and other drugs of addictive potential in blood) | 10 | 2.2 | |
Total | 50 | 11.1 | |
Diseases of the nervous system | Alzheimer’s disease, Huntington’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, Epilepsy, Primary disorders of muscles, sleep disorders, other disorders of brain) | 9 | 2.0 |