Background
Methods
Sample and procedures
Measures
Outcome variables
Exposure variable
Data analysis
Results
Sample characteristics
Variable | Variable specification | Sample | Discrimination | Attribution of discrimination | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
% or M (SD) | ≥1 vs 0) | Age | Financial | Other | ||
Social and demographic factors | ||||||
Age in years | 45–59 | 54.1 | 17.0 | 6.3 | 7.7 | 7.6 |
60 or more | 45.9 | 17.6 | 10.8 | 6.4 | 6.4 | |
Sex | Female | 58.0 | 17.0 | 8.2 | 7.2 | 6.9 |
Male | 42.0 | 17.7 | 8.5 | 7.0 | 7.3 | |
Education | ≥1 years schooling | 50.5 | 15.1 | 6.5 | 5.8 | 6.4 |
No schooling | 49.5 | 19.5 | 10.2 | 8.5 | 7.7 | |
Subjective socioeconomic status | Low | 37.2 | 21.6 | 10.3 | 10.4 | 8.8 |
Medium | 38.7 | 15.8 | 7.0 | 6.2 | 6.5 | |
High | 24.1 | 13.1 | 7.3 | 3.6 | 5.1 | |
Marital status | Not married | 24.4 | 18.9 | 11.4 | 7.7 | 6.4 |
Married | 75.6 | 16.8 | 7.3 | 6.9 | 7.2 | |
Caste/tribe | None of the below | 24.9 | 14.0 | 7.3 | 5.2 | 5.4 |
Scheduled caste | 8.8 | 19.3 | 8.8 | 9.2 | 8.4 | |
Scheduled tribe | 19.7 | 16.5 | 8.3 | 5.9 | 7.0 | |
Other backward class | 46.7 | 18.8 | 8.9 | 7.6 | 7.5 | |
Residence | Rural | 68.2 | 18.1 | 8.8 | 7.8 | 7.0 |
Urban | 31.8 | 15.6 | 7.2 | 5.6 | 7.0 | |
Organised religiosity (Attendance of religious services) | Not at all | 25.5 | 15.4 | 7.8 | 5.5 | 6.9 |
1–3 times/month or ≥ 1 times/year | 46.9 | 17.2 | 8.3 | 7.6 | 6.9 | |
≥1/week or every day | 27.6 | 19.1 | 8.9 | 7.8 | 7.4 | |
Social participation | Yes | 54.4 | 19.4 | 9.1 | 7.9 | 8.3 |
Mental health | ||||||
Life satisfaction | Low | 11.1 | 29.6 | 13.6 | 15.7 | 12.3 |
Cognitive functioning | Scale (0–32): M (SD) | 18.7 (5.1) | 17.8 (5.2) | 12.3 (5.3) | 17.6 (5.1) | 17.8 (5.2) |
Insomnia symptoms | Yes | 12.7 | 26.4 | 13.8 | 11.3 | 9.5 |
Depressive symptoms | Yes | 27.6 | 28.9 | 14.3 | 13.3 | 11.8 |
Physical health | ||||||
Any pain conditions | 1 or more | 65.7 | 19.3 | 9.5 | 8.1 | 7.9 |
Back pain or problem | Yes | 31.5 | 20.8 | 10.0 | 9.1 | 8.1 |
Persistent headaches | Yes | 12.8 | 21.9 | 9.5 | 11.1 | 8.6 |
Painful teeth | Yes | 28.4 | 21.5 | 10.4 | 8.7 | 9.7 |
Pain or stiffness of joints | Yes | 46.1 | 20.2 | 10.2 | 8.6 | 8.2 |
Any cardiovascular conditions | 1 or more | 46.6 | 16.7 | 8.5 | 6.8 | 6.8 |
Hypertension | Yes | 40.4 | 16.0 | 8.4 | 6.3 | 6.5 |
Angina | Yes | 8.6 | 19.9 | 8.6 | 9.7 | 7.5 |
Heart disease | Yes | 8.6 | 14.2 | 7.6 | 5.8 | 5.2 |
Stoke | Yes | 1.8 | 22.7 | 13.5 | 6.7 | 12.8 |
Chronic lung disease | Yes | 6.3 | 19.7 | 11.5 | 8.3 | 7.3 |
Functional limitationsa | 2 or more | 28.8 | 22.1 | 11.6 | 8.6 | 9.3 |
Health risk behaviour | ||||||
Current tobacco smoking | Yes | 30.4 | 19.1 | 9.6 | 8.3 | 7.0 |
Heavy episodic drinking | Yes | 2.9 | 24.8 | 13.4 | 10.2 | 11.5 |
Physical inactivity | Yes | 23.7 | 20.1 | 11.2 | 5.7 | 7.5 |
Proportions of perceived discrimination and reasons
Perceived discrimination | Treated with less courtesy or respect. | 12.1 |
Poorer service at restaurants or stores. | 6.7 | |
People act as if they think you are not smart. | 8.1 | |
People act as if they are afraid of you. | 5.1 | |
You are threatened or harassed. | 6.4 | |
Poorer medical services or treatment. | 5.9 | |
Number of perceived discriminations | 0 | 82.7 |
1–2 | 10.7 | |
3–6 | 6.6 | |
Reasons of discrimination | Age | 8.3 |
Financial | 7.1 | |
Caste | 2.2 | |
Gender | 1.6 | |
Physical appearance | 1.1 | |
Religion | 0.9 | |
Physical disability | 0.7 | |
Body weight | 0.3 | |
Other | 1.5 |
Associations of moderate and high perceived discrimination with health outcome indicators
Outcome variables | Response format | Perceived discrimination | Model 1: adjusted odds ratio or exp. (Coef.) (95% CI)a | Model 2: adjusted odds ratio, IRR, or exp. (Coef.) (95% CI)b |
---|---|---|---|---|
Mental health | ||||
Low life satisfaction | No | No | 1 Reference | 1 Reference |
Yes | Moderate | 2.11 (1.73, 2.58)*** | 1.47 (1.28, 1.68)*** | |
Severe | 2.48 (2.13, 2.89)*** | 1.42 (1.20, 1.67)*** | ||
Cognitive functioning | Scale | No | 1 Reference | 1 Reference |
Moderate | 0.39 (0.28, 0.54)*** | 0.60 (0.49, 0.74)*** | ||
Severe | 0.29 (0.20, 0.42)*** | 0.71 (0.55, 0.93)* | ||
Insomnia symptoms | No | No | 1 Reference | 1 Reference |
Yes | Moderate | 1.73 (1.50, 2.00)*** | 1.45 (1.25, 1.57)*** | |
Severe | 2.15 (1.84, 2.51)*** | 1.43 (1.22, 1.69)*** | ||
Depressive symptoms | No | No | 1 Reference | 1 Reference |
Yes | Moderate | 1.91 (1.64, 2.22)*** | 1.40 (1.18, 1.65)*** | |
Severe | 5.02 (4.47, 6.62)*** | 4.14 (3.62, 4.74)*** | ||
Physical health | ||||
Number of pain conditions | Count | No | 1 Reference | 1 Reference |
Moderate | 1.20 (1.08, 1.32)*** | 1.06 (1.00, 1.12)* | ||
Severe | 1.36 (1.30, 1.44)*** | 1.19 (1.13, 1.26)*** | ||
Number of cardiovascular conditions | Count | No | 1 Reference | 1 Reference |
Moderate | 0.94 (0.87, 1.01) | 0.93 (0.87, 1.00) | ||
Severe | 1.01 (0.94, 1.09) | 0.99 (0.92, 1.06) | ||
Chronic lung disease | No | No | 1 Reference | 1 Reference |
Yes | Moderate | 1.24 (0.97, 1.58) | 1.21 (0.93, 1.57) | |
Severe | 1.08 (0.88, 1.31) | 1.01 (0.83, 1.23) | ||
Functional limitationsc | No | No | 1 Reference | 1 Reference |
Yes | Moderate | 1.75 (1.53, 2.01)*** | 1.55 (1.35, 1.78)*** | |
Severe | 1.44 (1.25, 1.65)*** | 1.15 (1.00, 1.33)* | ||
Health risk behaviour | ||||
Current tobacco smoking | No | No | 1 Reference | 1 Reference |
Yes | Moderate | 1.04 (0.87, 1.26) | 1.01 (0.87, 1.16) | |
Severe | 1.29 (1.11, 1.49)*** | 1.13 (0.97, 1.33) | ||
Heavy episodic drinking | No | No | 1 Reference | 1 Reference |
Yes | Moderate | 1.29 (0.99, 1.67) | 1.31 (1.01, 1.70)* | |
Severe | 2.05 (1.33, 3.15)*** | 1.66 (1.25, 2.20)*** | ||
Physical inactivity | No | No | 1 Reference | 1 Reference |
Yes | Moderate | 1.06 (0.91, 1.24) | 1.06 (0.90, 1.25) | |
Severe | 1.67 (1.44, 1.94)*** | 1.61 (1.37, 1.89)*** |
Associations between reasons of discrimination and health outcomes
Outcome variables | Attribution of discrimination | Model 1: adjusted odds ratio or IRR (95% CI)a | Model 2: adjusted odds ratio or IRR (95% CI)b |
---|---|---|---|
Mental health | |||
Low life satisfaction | No discrimination | 1 Reference | 1 Reference |
Age | 1.30 (1.09, 1.55)** | 1.25 (1.06, 1.47)** | |
Financial | 2.66 (2.31, 3.06)*** | 2.33 (2.00, 2.72)*** | |
Caste | 1.43 (1.12, 1.85)** | 1.12 (0.85, 1.48) | |
Gender | 1.06 (0.71, 1.60) | 0.94 (0.55, 1.63) | |
Depressive symptoms | No discrimination | 1 Reference | 1 Reference |
Age | 1.91 (1.70, 2.15)*** | 1.72 (1.50, 1.96)*** | |
Financial | 2.45 (2.17, 2.76)*** | 2.07 (1.81, 2.36)*** | |
Caste | 1.59 (1.22, 2.07)*** | 1.76 (1.43, 2.17)*** | |
Gender | 1.36 (0.90, 2.05) | 1.14 (0.67, 1.94) | |
Physical health | |||
Number of pain conditions | No discrimination | Reference | Reference |
Age | 1.12 (1.05, 1.18)*** | 1.08 (1.02, 1.14)** | |
Financial | 1.23 (1.16, 1.31)*** | 1.15 (1.08, 1.23)*** | |
Caste | 1.13 (1.01, 1.27)* | 0.98 (0.91, 1.06) | |
Gender | 1.03 (0.91, 1.16) | 1.02 (0.93, 1.12) | |
Functional limitationsc | No discrimination | 1 Reference | 1 Reference |
Age | 1.39 (1.20, 1.61)*** | 1.23 (1.07, 1.43)** | |
Financial | 1.36 (1.20, 1.55)*** | 1.21 (1.06, 1.39)** | |
Caste | 1.12 (1.02, 1.23)* | 1.15 (1.04, 1.28)** | |
Gender | 1.31 (0.74, 2.32) | 1.21 (1.06, 1.39) | |
Health risk behaviour | |||
Physical inactivity | No discrimination | 1 Reference | 1 Reference |
Age | 1.54 (1.33, 1.77)*** | 1.47 (1.27, 1.69)*** | |
Financial | 0.69 (0.60, 0.80)*** | 0.68 (0.59, 0.76)*** | |
Caste | 0.98 (0.80, 1.18) | 0.91 (0.79, 1.03) | |
Gender | 0.67 (0.43, 1.05) | 0.68 (0.44, 1.07) |