Cancer therapeutics-related cardiac dysfunction: general
Background
Definition of terms “cancer therapeutics-related cardiac dysfunction”
Classification of cancer therapeutics-related cardiac dysfunction (Table 1)
Type I | Type II | |
---|---|---|
Characteristic agents | Anthracyclines (doxorubicin, daunorubicin, epirubicin, liposomal doxorubicin, mitoxantrone) | Anti-HER2 antibody (trastuzumab) Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (sunitinib, imatinib, lapatinib, osimertinib) |
Mechanism of cardiac dysfunction | Direct cardiomyocyte necrosis Free radical formation Oxidative stress/damage | Cardiomyocyte dysfunction Blocked ErbB2 signaling |
Natural course, clinical course, and response to treatment | Permanent cardiomyocyte damage, occurring from the initial administration of the drug Persistent and irreversible cardiac dysfunction, and may stabilize | Typically, reversible cardiomyocyte dysfunction, good prognosis, high likelihood of recovery in 2–4 months |
Myocardial biopsy | Vacuoles Myofibrillar disarray Necrosis (Ultrastructural abnormalities) | Endocardial changes reported No characteristic changes observed with Type I drugs (No apparent ultrastructural abnormalities) |
Dose effects | Cumulative, dose-related | Not cumulative or dose related |
Risk factors | Any condition that causes myocardial damage or increases load Genetic susceptibility to causative agents | Trastuzumab: recent use of anthracyclines Sunitinib: arterial hypertension Imatinib: fluid retention A wide variation in genetic susceptibility to among causative agents |
Incidence and risk factors of cancer therapeutics-related cardiac dysfunction
Cancer treatment-related risk factors | Patient background-related risk factors |
---|---|
High-dose anthracyclines (≥ 250 mg/m2 doxorubicin, ≥ 600 mg/m2 epirubicin) HER2 inhibitors (e.g., trastuzumab) VEGFR inhibitors (e.g., pazopanib) BRAF inhibitors (e.g., dabrafenib) Immune checkpoint inhibitors | Age > 65 years or < 15 years Pre-existing coronary artery disease History of chronic heart failure or cardiomyopathy At least two comorbidities among hypertension, diabetes mellitus, smoking, and obesity Previous or concomitant anthracycline treatment |
Prognosis and significance of early diagnosis of cancer therapeutics-related cardiac dysfunction
Diagnosis of cancer therapeutics-related cardiac dysfunction
Biomarkers
Echocardiography
LV contractility
References | Anthracycline Dose* (mg/m2) | Type of cancer | No. of patients No. of events Type of event | Software GLS cutoff value | Comments |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mousavi [46] | 207 ± 99 | Breast cancer and hematological cancer | 158 12 Heart failure | TomTec 16% | Hazard ratio, 4.7 |
Rhea [47] | Anthracyclines in 58% of patients Chest radiotherapy in 26% | Hematological cancer and solid tumors | 122 59 All-cause death | Vivid 7/Q 18% | |
Ali [48] | 217 (8–670) | Leukemia and malignant lymphoma | 450 28 Heart failure/Cardiac death | TomTec 17.5% | AUC, 0.89 |
Hatazawa [49] | 285 ± 107 | Malignant lymphoma | 73 10 Heart failure | QLAB version 10 19% | AUC, 0.77 Sensitivity, 60% Specificity, 87% |
ASCO clinical practice guideline [18] | ESMO clinical guideline [27] | EACVI/ASE expert consensus [28] | ESC position paper [9] | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Definition based on echocardiographic parameters | Reduction in LVEF of > 10 percentage points from baseline (cited from the ASE guidelines) | Reduction in LVEF of > 10 percentage points from baseline | Decrease in LVEF of > 10 percentage points from baseline, to a value < 53% of baseline. In comparable cases, a reduction of GLS of > 15% is considered significantly abnormal | Decrease in LVEF of > 10 percentage points from baseline, to a value below the lower limit of normal Reduction in GLS of > 15% compared with baseline |
LV diastolic function
Right ventricular (RV) function and pulmonary artery pressure
Other imaging modalities
Echocardiographic protocols for patients treated with anticancer drugs
Echocardiography before treatment with anticancer drugs (Tables 5, 6)
Before treatment | During treatment | After treatment | |
---|---|---|---|
Anthracyclines | Mandatory | When the accumulating dose (*1) > 240 mg/m2 (*2) > 500 mg/m2 (*2) End of treatment | 6 and 12 months after the end of treatment |
Anti-HER2 monoclonal antibodies | Mandatory | Every 3 months End of treatment | Finish the follow-up if there is no decrease in LVEF/GLS at the end of treatment |
Molecular-targeting agents other than HER2 | Mandatory | When clinically indicated, (*4) by referring to the description of the Guide for Proper Use of each drug (*3) End of treatment | Finish the follow-up if there is no decrease in LVEF/GLS at the end of treatment |
Immune checkpoint inhibitors | Mandatory | End of treatment | Finish the follow-up if there is no decrease in LVEF/GLS at the end of treatment |
Trade name | Non-proprietary name (Abbreviation) | Recommended timing of echocardiography | |
---|---|---|---|
Anthracyclines | Adriacin | Doxorubicin (DXR, ADM, ADR) | Before treatment, at accumulating doses of 240 and 500 mg/m2 and end of treatment, and 6 and 12 months after the end of treatment |
Therarubicin | Pirarubicin (THP) | Before treatment, at accumulating doses of 400 and 800 mg/m2 and end of treatment, and 6 and 12 months after the end of treatment | |
Epirubicin, Farmorubicin | Epirubicin (EPI) | Before treatment, at accumulating doses of 360 and 900 mg/m2 and end of treatment, and 6 and 12 months after the end of treatment | |
Doxil | Doxorubicin hydrochloride liposome formulation (PLD) | Before treatment, at accumulating doses of 240 and 500 mg/m2 and end of treatment, and 6 and 12 months after the end of treatment | |
Anti-HER2 monoclonal antibodies | Herceptin | Trastuzumab | Before treatment, every 3 months during treatment, and at the end of treatment |
Kadcyla | Trastuzumab emtansine | ||
Molecular-targeting agents other than HER2 | Lembima | Lenvatinib | Before treatment, as clinically indicated* afterward, and at the end of treatment |
Votrient | Pazopanib | ||
Tagrisso | Osimertinib | ||
Tafinlar/Mekinist | dabrafenib/trametinib | ||
Avastin | Bevacizumab | ||
Sutent | Sunitinib | ||
Tykerb | Lapatinib | ||
Immune checkpoint inhibitors | Yervoy | Ipilimumab | Before treatment and at the end of treatment |
Opdivo | Nivolumab | ||
Keytruda | Pembrolizumab | ||
Bavencio | Avelumab | ||
Tecentriq | Atezolizumab | ||
Imifinzi | Durvalumab |
Echocardiography during treatment with anticancer drugs
Mandatory items | Possible Substitutes |
---|---|
LVEF by the disc method LV end-diastolic diameter/LV end-systolic diameter LV diastolic parameters (E/A, E/eʹ) Tricuspid regurgitant velocity GLS (where feasible) | sʹ and MAPSE (as a substitute for GLS) |
Echocardiography after treatment with anticancer drugs
Cancer survivors who have received cardioprotective agents or whose regimen has been modified or altered during and after treatment because of reduced cardiac function | Follow-up for life (preferably about once a year) |
Cancer survivors who have received anthracyclines with no abnormal cardiac function during and 6 months after treatment | Finish the follow-up at 1 year after treatment if no abnormalities are observed then |
Cancer survivors who have never received anthracyclines with no abnormal cardiac function during and at the end of treatment | Finish the follow-up at the end of treatment |
Cancer survivors who have developed clinical manifestations and/or abnormalities in other examinations | Determine as appropriate |
Drug-induced pulmonary artery hypertension and cancer-associated thrombosis (CAT)
Pulmonary hypertension
Thrombosis
Radiation-induced heart disease (RIHD)
Anterior or left chest irradiation location |
High cumulative dose of radiation (> 30 Gy) |
Younger patients (< 50 years) |
High dose of radiation fractions (> 2 Gy/day) |
Presence and extent of tumor in or next to the heart |
Lack of shielding |
Concomitant chemotherapy (anthracyclines considerably increase the risk) |
Cardiovascular risk factors (i.e., diabetes mellitus, smoking, overweight, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia) |
Pre-existing cardiovascular disease |
Common types of RIHD
Follow-up after radiotherapy (Fig. 2)
Considerations in practical application
Echocardiographic parameters and measurement errors
Quality control in the echocardiography laboratory (Table 10)
Class I |
Echocardiography laboratory and equipment should be maintained and inspected in accordance with the relevant guidelines |
The previous and baseline measurements and images should be reviewed prior to the examination in patients who have previously undergone echocardiography |
Echocardiographic measurements should be examined by a well-experienced examiner to ensure agreement with visual assessment |
Class IIa |
Routine verification of intra- and inter-examiner variability of measurements within the laboratory is recommended to ensure the quality control |
Equipment should be adequately maintained to ensure that the images and videos of echocardiography are stored in the storage server and accessed for reference or re-measurement as needed |
Considerations for echocardiographic measurements (Table 10)
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(a) Review of previous and baseline measurementsIn patients who have previously undergone echocardiography, the previous and baseline measurements and images should be reviewed prior to echocardiography (Class I). For this reason, baseline still and motion images should always be recorded. If a well-experienced examiner considers that the previous measurements are not valid compared to the image, they should be re-measured and the examiner should contact the attending physician.
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(b) Measurements by the same examinerIf possible, the same examiner should be responsible for repeated examinations of the same patient. This does not apply if it is impracticable due to personnel allocation.
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(c) Measurements with the same echocardiographic machineInter-vendor variability of echocardiographic measurements has been reported, particularly for GLS measurements. Standardization has been advanced by a task force led by ASE and EACVI, [85] which has reduced the inter-vendor variability of echocardiographic measurements [87]. However, it is desirable that echocardiographic machines from the same manufacturer be used for the same patient as far as possible. However, this does not apply if it is difficult from the viewpoint of resources for each laboratory.
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(d) Validation of measurementsEchocardiographic measurements should be assessed by a well-experienced examiner to ensure agreement with visual assessment (Class I). If possible, apart from the examiner, an echocardiologist or certified sonographer should examine the validity of the measurements. In patients who have previously undergone echocardiography, changes in echocardiographic measurements should be examined to ensure agreement with visual changes on the image.