Background
Of the five
Plasmodium parasite species producing human malaria,
Plasmodium vivax causes 100 to 300 million clinical cases per year [
1,
2], representing ~40% of the population suffering from this disease. Although
P. vivax malaria has been considered to be less severe than that produced by
Plasmodium falciparum in clinical terms, several factors have highlighted the need to search for new effective control measures to counteract
P. vivax infections, i.e. its ability to cause chronic infections by inducing dormant forms present in the liver (hypnozoites), increased severe manifestations caused by this parasite species and the emergence of strains resistant to chemotherapeutic agents, such as chloroquine [
3,
4]. Due to the difficulty of carrying out a
P. vivax continuous culture
in vitro, this parasite has been relatively less studied compared to other
Plasmodium species. To overcome this problem, a comparative approach has been undertaken aimed at identifying and characterizing in
P. vivax parasite molecules involved in target cell invasion previously described for other
Plasmodium species (mainly
P. falciparum), and in recent transcriptome studies of the
P. vivax intraerythrocytic development cycle [
5].
The
Plasmodium parasite life-cycle is very complex, beginning with a larva-like structure (or sporozoite) being injected by the
Anopheles mosquito during its bite in the search for a blood meal. The sporozoites then migrate to the liver and invade hepatocytes, where they rapidly reproduce and transform into thousands of pear-like structures (merozoites). During the asexual erythrocytic phase, which is responsible for the clinical manifestations of the disease, merozoites invade red blood cells (RBCs) very quickly through a process mediated by multiple receptor-ligand interactions [
6]. A large number of parasite proteins associated with this type of interaction are stored in a set of specialized apical organelles known as rhoptries, micronemes and dense granules [
7,
8]. After initial contact with the RBC, the parasite redirects its apical pole over the erythrocyte membrane and sequentially releases the contents from micronemes, rhoptries and then the dense granules [
9]. These molecular events lead to tight junction (TJ) and parasitophorous vacuole (PV) formation, as well as the biochemical and functional remodelling of host cell architecture [
10].
A TJ is characteristic of members belonging to the phylum
Apicomplexa and can be seen as a ring-shaped electro-dense structure by electron microscope; this connects to the parasite's actin-myosin motor [
11] to propel the parasite within the nascent PV, where it will reside during the intraerythrocytic development cycle [
12]. Several microneme- and rhoptry-derived proteins, such as reticulocyte-binding protein homologues (RH) [
13,
14], erythrocyte-binding ligands (EBL) and the MCP-1 protein [
15] either form part or are associated with the TJ.
Apical merozoite antigen 1 (AMA-1) is derived from micronemes and is essential in invasion of most
Apicomplexa studied so far [
16,
17]. It has been recently described that it is associated with proteins derived from the rhoptry neck in
Toxoplasma gondii, such as RON-2, -4, -5 and -8 in the TJ. A TJ organizational model described by Besteiro
et al in 2009 [
18], proposed that the parasite directly inserts some RON proteins (also identified as AMA-1 associated proteins (AAPs)) into the host cell membrane, thus acting as additional
Tg AMA-1 receptors. A clear interaction between the
Tg RON2 C-terminal region and the AMA-1 ectodomain (forming a crucial bridge between
Tg AMA-1 and the rest of the AAPs) has been recently demonstrated through different protein-protein interaction assays. Moreover, inhibition assays using recombinant proteins have shown that the RON2 and AMA-1 interaction is critical for the entry to host cells [
19,
20].
Previous comparative analysis between
T. gondii and
P. falciparum genomes has revealed the presence of homologues for
Tg RON2,
Tg RON4 and
Tg RON5 proteins in
P. falciparum:
Pf RON2 (
Pf 14_0495),
Pf RON4 (
Pf 11_0168) and
Pf RON5 (MAL8P1.73), respectively.
Pf RON2 [
21],
Pf RON4 [
22] and
Pf RON5 [
23] are located in the rhoptry neck and co-immunoprecipitate with
Pf AMA-1 [
21,
22,
24,
25]. Furthermore, the
Pf RON2 protein and the
Pf AMA-1 ectodomain interaction has already been characterized, as well as its importance for erythrocyte invasion, suggesting that the mechanism described in
T. gondii could be conserved among different members of the phylum
Apicomplexa[
19].
Studies with parasite lines expressing
Pf AMA-1 protein mutants have shown that the
Y251 residue, located inside the hydrophobic channel, is absolutely essential for
Pf AMA1/AAP complex formation [
25]. Interestingly, an invasion inhibition antibody known as 4G2, that recognizes the domain II loop of
Pf AMA-1 [
26], prevents
Pf AMA1/AAP complex assembly through steric hindrance and/or by inducing a
Pf AMA-1 conformational change which interferes with the AAP binding site [
25,
27]. Likewise, the R1 peptide derived from a random phage display peptide library and known for being a powerful inhibitor of merozoite invasion of human RBCs [
28] acts by binding to the
Pf AMA-1 hydrophobic channel and blocking
Pf AMA1-AAPs complex formation [
29]. These data suggest that the interaction of a vaccine candidate molecule such as
Pf AMA-1 with new rhoptry neck components is critical during invasion of erythrocytes and a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in this process might thus help in developing new anti-malarial strategies.
Taking into account the importance and implication of RONs in different parasites belonging to the phylum Apicomplexa and based on previous studies carried out in P. falciparum, the identification and characterization of the first P. vivax rhoptry neck protein (Pv RON2), which is homologous to Pf RON2, are described in the present study. This protein is 2,204 amino acids-long (~220 kDa molecular mass), displaying an apical expression in P. vivax late schizonts, which suggests its role during invasion of target cells.
Methods
The search for a
Pf RON2 homologous gene in
P. vivax was carried out using the tBlastn tool in the
P. vivax Sal-1 strain genome [
30]. The sequence having the greatest score was selected as
pvron2 putative gene. PlasmoDB and Sanger Institute [
31] databases were scanned for
pvron2 and
pfron2 homologous genes in partial genomes from other
Plasmodium species (
Plasmodium knowlesi,
Plasmodium chabaudi,
Plasmodium yoelii and
Plasmodium berghei). Identity and similarity values between
P. falciparum - P. vivax and the other species were obtained with ALignX and ClustalW tools [
32]. The presence of a signal peptide was assessed by using SignalP [
33] and anchor regions were predicted using the PredGPI and TMHMM servers [
34]. Repeat sequences and domains were predicted with the sequence tandem repeats extraction and architecture modelling software (XSTREAM, variable 'X'), the simple modular architecture research tool (SMART) and GlobPlot tools [
35‐
37]. Bepipred tool [
38] and ANTHEPROT software [
39] were used for linear B epitope selection.
Nucleic acids source and extraction
The
P. vivax Colombia Guaviare 1 (VCG-1) strain was used as DNA, RNA and protein source. The strain was cultured through successive passes in
Aotus spp monkeys from FIDIC's Primate Station in Leticia, Amazonas, as previously described [
40] and according to the conditions established by the Ministry of the Environment's official Institute, Corpoamazonía (resolution 00066, September 13
th 2006). Three to four mL of
P. vivax VCG-1-infected monkey's blood were extracted; a schizont-rich sample was then obtained by discontinuous Percoll gradient (GE Healthcare, Uppsala, Sweden) according to a previously described protocol [
41]. A Wizard genomic DNA purification kit (Promega, Wisconsin, USA) was used for genomic DNA extraction (gDNA) following the manufacturer's specifications. Total RNA was extracted by the Trizol method [
42] and then treated with RQ1 RNase-free DNase (Promega, Wisconsin, USA). Five microlitres of RNA were used as cDNA synthesis template using the Superscript III enzyme (Invitrogen, Carlsbad CA) and oligo (dT) primers in a 5-min cycle at 65°C, followed by 60 minutes at 50°C and a final 15-min cycle at 70°C.
Primer design, cloning and pvron2 gene sequencing
The pvron-2 nucleotide sequence (PVX_117880), reported in the PlasmoDB database, was used as template for designing three sets of primers with GeneRunner v3.05 software. PvRON2-pEXP-F1 5'-ATG ATA AGTA CAA GGG AGG CAA AA-3' and PvRON2-pEXP-R1 5'-ATA TCT TTT GTT TCT CGT CCT G-3' primers were used for amplifying region I, consisting of amino acids 18 to 742. PvRON2-pEXP-F2 5'-ATG AAC CCAT TAG TAT ATC ACG TG-3' and PvRON2-pEXP-R2 5'-CAG CAG TTT CAT CTTG GCC-3' were used for amplifying region II, consisting of amino acids 701 to 1560. Region III (amino acids 1517 to 2203) was amplified with PvRON2-pEXP-F3 5'-ATG ACC AGG GCT GAG AAA TTC G-3' and PvRON2-pEXP-R3 5'-CAC CTG TAT GCG GGC GTA-3'. Two primers were used for amplifying the PvAMA-1 ectodomain (43-487 amino acids): PvAMA-1D 5'-ATG CCT ACC GTT GAG AGA AGC A-3' and PvAMA-1R 5'-TAG TAG CAT CTG CTT GTT CG-3'.
PCR amplification was carried out using GoTaq Flexi DNA polymerase enzyme (Promega) in a 25 μL final reaction, according to manufacturer's instructions. Amplification conditions were as follows: a 7-min cycle at 95°C, followed by 35 cycles of 1 min at 58°C, 3 min at 72°C and 1 min at 95°C, and finally, a 10-min extension step at 72°C. Products were visualized on a 1% agarose gel and then purified with a Wizard PCR preps kit (Promega). PCR products obtained from cDNA were cloned in the pEXP5-CT/TOPO expression vector using TOPO TA cloning (Invitrogen, Carlsbad CA). Positive clones were analysed by enzymatic restriction and sequenced in an ABI PRISM 310 Genetic Analyser (PE Applied Biosystems).
Peptide synthesis and polyclonal antibody production
Two linear B-cell epitope peptides were selected for producing polyclonal antibodies against the
Pv RON2 protein based on the following parameters: (1) high average values for Parker's antigenicity, hydrophilicity and solvent accessibility obtained with Antheprot software [
39], (2) high values in results obtained with the Bepipred tool (at default 0.35 threshold and 75% specificity) [
38] and (3) selected peptides had to be located in different portions of the protein, with the aim of detecting different fragments in case the
Pv RON2 protein was proteolytically processed. Selected peptides were synthesized by solid-phase peptide synthesis (SPPS) using the tert-butoxycarbonyl (t-Boc) strategy [
43] and numbered according to our institute's serial numbering system as: 35519 (CG
734YGRTRNKRYMHRNPGEKYKG
753GC) and 35520 (CG
1674KLQQEQNELNEEKERQRQEN
1693GC).
Peptide 37870, derived from the N-terminal region of
Pv AMA-1 protein (CG
23RNQKPSRLTRSANNVLLE
40GC), and 32416, derived from
Pv RhopH3 protein (CG
792SAGVGTVSTHSPATAARMGL
811GC), were synthesized by SPPS. Peptide 37870 has been shown to be immunogenic in mice [
44] and peptide 32416 has previously been used for polyclonal antibody production in rabbits, followed by localization experiments for the
Pv RhopH3 protein [
45]. Synthesized peptides were analysed by reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry (Auoflex, Bruker Daltonics, Bremen, Germany). Cysteine and glycine were added to the N- and C-termini during synthesis to allow peptide polymerization. These peptides were inoculated in mice and the obtained sera were used for co-localization experiments as explained below.
Two New Zealand rabbits were selected (numbered 89 and 90) for obtaining polyclonal antibodies against Pv RON2 protein; they were negative for P. vivax-derived protein recognition by Western Blot. Each rabbit was subcutaneously inoculated with 500 μg of putative Pv RON2-derived peptide 35519 (rabbit 90) or peptide 35520 (rabbit 89), emulsified in Freund's complete adjuvant (FCA) on day 0. Booster immunizations on days 20 and 40 were administered using the same peptides emulsified in Freund's incomplete adjuvant (FCI). Rabbits' sera were collected on day 60 and used for further assays.
7-8 week old BALB/c strain mice were intraperitoneally (i.p.) immunized with 100 μg of peptide 37870 or peptide 32416, emulsified in FCA. Three boosters were given on days 30, 45 and 60 with 100 μg of FCI-emulsified peptide. These animals were bled 15 days after the last immunization and their sera were collected for further assays. Immunizations and animal bleeding were carried out following Colombian Ministry of Health recommendations for handling live animals used in research or experimentation.
Immunoblotting and immunofluorescence
Saponin-treated parasite lysate was separated by 10% SDS-PAGE and proteins were then transferred to a nitrocellulose membrane. The membrane was blocked with a 5% milk solution in 0.05% PBS-Tween for one hour to eliminate unspecific binding. The membrane was cut into stripes for individual incubation with pre-immune and hyper-immune sera (anti-Pv RON2 polyclonal antibodies) in 1:20 dilution for 90 min, followed by incubation with phosphatase-coupled anti-rabbit IgG (PIERCE, Rockford, IL, USA) in a 1:5,000 dilution for 60 min. A BCIP/NBT kit (Promega) was used as a revealing solution, according to the manufacturer's instructions.
Plasmodium vivax VCG-1 thick smears were used for immunofluorescence assays and fixed with 4% v/v formaldehyde for 10 min. The slides were then permeabilized for 10 min with 1% v/v Triton and blocked with a 1% BSA/PBS solution at 37°C. The slides were washed several times with PBS and incubated with 300 μL of anti-Pv RON2 polyclonal serum (primary antibody) in a 1:40 dilution with either anti-Pv AMA-1 in a 1:20 dilution or anti-Pv RhopH3 in the same dilution for 60 min. Fluorescein-labelled anti-rabbit IgG (FITC) (Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, CA, USA) and rhodamine-labelled anti-mouse IgG (Millipore, Billerica, MA, USA) were used as secondary antibody for 60 min, followed by three PBS washes. Parasite nuclei were stained with a 2 μg/mL solution of 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) for 20 minutes at room temperature and fluorescence was visualized in a fluorescence microscope (Olympus BX51) using an Olympus DP2 camera and Volocity software (Perkin Elmer, Waltham, MA, USA).
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors' contributions
GAP carried out bioinformatics analyses, molecular biology assays and wrote the initial manuscript. HC synthesized and purified the peptides used for rabbit and mice immunizations and analysed data. LCP carried out immunoassays. MAP evaluated and coordinated assays, and revised the final manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.