Introduction
Modeling and evaluating a unique ventricle
The right ventricle is not a mirror image left ventricle
Evaluation of RV function and failure
Parameter | Examples |
---|---|
Type of loading | Proximal pressure load (e.g., pulmonary artery banding) |
Peripheral pressure load (e.g., pulmonary hypertension) | |
Volume load (e.g., aorto-caval shunt, pulmonary/tricuspid valve regurgitation) | |
Combined pressure/volume load (e.g., pulmonary hypertension + aorto-caval shunt | |
Clinical symptoms | Appearance (decreased grooming or inactivity) |
Bodyweight changes (cachexia or fluid retention) | |
Cyanosis or decreased peripheral circulation | |
Dyspnea/tachypnea (labored breathing) | |
Effusions (palpable ascites) | |
Exercise | Voluntary/spontaneous activity |
Forced exercise testing | |
Effusion at autopsy | Pleural effusion |
Ascites | |
Liver wet/dry weight ratio | |
Survival | Mortality |
Human endpoints reached |
Species | Model | Signs and symptoms | Survival | Exercise | RVP | EDP | Ees | Ees/Ea | Eed | CI or CO | EDV | Ref | Remark |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Peripheral pressure load
| |||||||||||||
Rat | mct30 | None | No mortality | n/a | 27 | 56 | 21 | = | −16 | 9 | 13 S | [36] | |
Rat | mct80 | ↓BW, inactivity | No mortality | n/a | 67 S | 38 | 15 | ↓ | −9 | −26 | 89 S | [36] | |
Rat | mct80 | Yes (see R1) | No mortality | V ↓ | 96 S | 199 S | 188 S | n/a | 4 | −8 | 30 | [17] | R1, R2 |
Rat | mct60 | ↓BW, resp distress | ↑ mortality | n/a | 166 S | 200 S | 400 S | ↓ | 700 S | −60 S | n/a | [34] | |
Rat | mct60 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 325 S | n/a | 766 S | = | 500 S | −64 S | n/a | [102] | |
Rat | mct40 | None | No mortality | F ↓ | 120 S | 400 S | n/a | n/a | n/a | −45 S | n/a | [56] | |
Rat | mct60 | Yes (see R3) | n/a | F ↓ | 180 S | 650 S | n/a | n/a | n/a | −10 | n/a | [56] | R3 |
Rat | mct60 | n/a | n/a | F ↓ | 140 S | 333 S | n/a | n/a | n/a | −30 S | 19 | [32] | |
Rat | mct60 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 160 S | 200 S | n/a | n/a | n/a | −25 S | n/a | [27] | |
Rat | mct60 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 110 S | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | −60 S | n/a | [69] | |
Rat | mct40 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 110 S | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | −29 S | n/a | [103] | |
Rat | mct40 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 121 S | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | −39 S | n/a | [99] | R4 |
Rat | SuHx | n/a | n/a | F ↓ | 200 S | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | −63 S | n/a | [32] | |
Rat | SuHx | n/a | ↑ mortality | F ↓ | 222 S | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | −42 S | n/a | [88] | |
Rat | SuHx | n/a | No mortality | n/a | 208 S | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | −42 S | n/a | [28] | R5 |
Rat | SuHx | n/a | n/a | n/a | 283 S | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | [66] | |
Rat | FHR | n/a | n/a | F ↓ | 36 | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | −42 S | n/a | [104] | |
Rat | mct80 | ↓ BW | No mortality | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | −50 S | 25 S | [51] | |
Rat | mct60 | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | −83 S | n/a | [105] | |
Rat | mct60 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 126 S | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | [106] | |
Rat | mct60 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 130 S | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | [107] | |
Rat | mct60 | Yes (see R6) | ↑ mortality | n/a | 133 S | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | [108] | R6 |
Rat | mct60 | Yes (see R7) | ↑ mortality | n/a | 133 S | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | [109] | R7 |
Rat | mct60 | n/a | ↑ mortality | n/a | 133 S | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | [110] | |
Rat | mct80 | Yes (see R8) | No mortality | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | [37] | R8 |
Rat | mct30 | none | No mortality | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | [65] | |
Rat | mct80 | Yes (see R9) | No mortality | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | [65] | R9 |
Rat | mct60 | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | [94] | |
Rat | mct60 | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | [98] | |
Rat | mct60 | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | [83] | |
Pigs | AVS | n/a | No mortality | n/a | 29 S | n/a | −13 | ↓ | n/a | −44 S | n/a | [81] | R10 |
Pigs | AVS | n/a | No mortality | n/a | 84 S | n/a | 74 S | = | n/a | 3 | n/a | [39] | R11 |
Proximal pressure load
| |||||||||||||
Lamb | pab > 8 | None | No mortality | n/a | 433 S | 75 | 281 S | n/a | 62 S | −37 S | −13 | [42] | R12 |
Rabbit | pab5 | None | No mortality | n/a | 271 S | 30 S | 185 S | n/a | 62 | n/a | n/a | [58] | |
Dog | pab13 | n/a | No mortality | n/a | 105 S | n/a | 243 S | n/a | 116 S | 0 | n/a | [41] | |
Rat | pab4 | Mild symptoms | No mortality | V ↓ | 169 S | 500 S | 162 S | n/a | 125 S | −15 S | 60 S | [16] | |
Rat | pab8 | ABCDE (see R13) | ↑ mortality | n/a | 204 S | 300 S | 338 S | ↓ | 1053 S | −50 S | n/a | [43] | R13 |
Rat | pab6 | None | n/a | n/a | 117 S | 40 | 100 S | n/a | n/a | −5 | −18 | [26] | |
Rat | pab12 | None | n/a | n/a | 97 S | 50 | 9 | n/a | n/a | −25 S | n/a | [111] | R14 |
Rat | pab20 | None | n/a | n/a | 113 S | 17 | −9 | n/a | n/a | −12 | n/a | [111] | R15 |
Rat | pab3 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 166 S | 200 S | n/a | n/a | n/a | −26 S | n/a | [27] | |
Mouse | pab4 | None | No mortality | V ↓ | 300 S | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | 0 | 20 S | [8] | |
Rat | pab4 | n/a | n/a | F ↓ | 220 S | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | −53 S | n/a | [32] | |
Rat | pab7 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 152 S | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | −37 S | n/a | [69] | |
Rat | pab6 | Yes (see R16) | No mortality | n/a | 200 S | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | 0 | n/a | [86] | R16 |
Rat | pab6 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 217 S | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | [66] | |
Rat | pab22 | n/a | No mortality | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | 0 | n/a | [28] | |
Mouse | pab3 | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | 0 | 75 S | [38] | |
Rat | pab4 | n/a | n/a | F ↓ | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | −42 S | n/a | [15] | |
Rat | pab6 | n/a | No mortality | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | 0 | n/a | [28] | |
Rat | pab8 | n/a | n/a | F ↓ | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | −45 S | n/a | [15] | |
Rat | pab lowcu | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | [28] | |
Rat | pab3 | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | [50] | |
Rat | pab6 | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | [50] | |
Mouse | pab6 | Yes (see R17) | ↑ mortality | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | [29] | R17 |
Rat | pab9 | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | [50] |
Modeling RV abnormal loading conditions
Models of increased afterload
The physiology of RV adaptation to increased afterload
Group | Agent | Clinically available? | Exercise | Symptoms | Mortality | Contractility | Ees/Ea ratio | Diastolic function | RVH | Fibrosis | Tested in fixed afterload? | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Beta-blockade | Carvedilol | Y | n/a | n/a | Improved | n/a | n/a | n/a | Reduced | Reduced | N | [88] |
Metoprolol | Y | n/a | n/a | Improved | n/a | n/a | n/a | Unchanged | Reduced | N | [88] | |
Bisoprolol | Y | n/a | Improved | Improved | Improved | Increased | Improved | Unchanged | Reduced | N | [34] | |
RAAS inhibition | Losartan | Y | n/a | n/a | n/a | Unchanged | Increased | Improved | Unchanged | n/a | N | [102] |
Telmisartan | Y | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | Reduced | Reduced | N | [112] | |
Losartan/eplerenone | Y | Unchanged | Unchanged | Unchanged | Unchanged | Decreased | Unchanged | Unchanged | Unchanged | Y | [43] | |
PKG-1-PDE5 pathway | Sildenafil | Y | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | Unchanged | Unchanged | Y | [50] |
Sildenafil | Y | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | Unchanged | n/a | Y | [27] | |
Sildenafil | Y | Improved | Improved | n/a | Improved | Increased | Unchanged | Unchanged | Increased | Y | [16] | |
Sildenafil | Y | Unchanged | Unchanged | n/a | Unchanged | Unchanged | Improved | Unchanged | Reduced | Y | [44] | |
Sildenafil | Y | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | Unchanged | n/a | N | [103] | |
Riociguat | N | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | Reduced | Reduced | N | [95] | |
BAY 41-2272 | N | n/a | n | n | n/a | n/a | n/a | Unchanged | Unchanged | Y | [113] | |
Endothelin receptor blockade | Bosentan | Y | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | Unchanged | n/a | N | [99] |
Anti-oxidant | Protandim | N | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | Reduced | N | [28] |
Anti-oxidant | EUK-134 | N | n/a | Unchanged | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | Unchanged | Reduced | N | [51] |
Rho-kinase inhibitor | Fasudil | N | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | Reduced | n/a | N | [103] |
HDAC inhibitor | Trichostatin A | N | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | Unchanged | Increased | Y | [86] |
Fatty acid oxidation blockade | Trimetazidine | Y | Improved | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | Reduced | n/a | Y | [15] |
Ranolazine | Y | Improved | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | Reduced | n/a | Y | [15] | |
PDK inhibitor | Dichloroacetate | N | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | Reduced | n/a | Y | [69] |
Estrogen receptor-beta agonist | Genistein | N | n/a | n/a | Improved | n/a | n/a | n/a | Reduced | n/a | N | [106] |
Studies without pressure–volume analysis
Proximal- versus peripheral-type pressure load
Interaction with LV function
Pathobiology of RV failure
RV hypertrophy, isoform switch and fibrosis
RV capillary formation/RV oxygen supply
Cardiac metabolism
Mitochondrial function
Apoptosis and inflammation
PKG−PDE5 pathway
Other pathways
Model | Mechanism | Difference with LV | Ref |
---|---|---|---|
Mouse PAB | Extracellular matrix proteins | ↑ expressed in RV | [38] |
Proteases and inhibitors | ↑ expressed in RV | [38] | |
Developmentally regulated proteins | only expressed in RV | [38] | |
Rat PAB | PINK1 | ↓ in RVF, ↑ in LVF | |
Mouse PAB vs TAC | miRNA 28,148a,93 | ↑ in RVF (in non-myocyt fraction) | [87] |
Mouse PAB | Wnt signalling | ↑↑ in RVF > LVF | [29] |
Rat MCT | Mef2c | ↑ compensated RV, ↓ RVF, no change LVF | [115] |