Some aspects of physical performance are improved following military training in both military men and women. |
Typically, there were no sex differences in the physical performance adaptation to military training. |
It seems sex-specific military training may not be necessary to achieve some improvements in physical performance. |
1 Introduction
2 Methods
2.1 Study Identification
2.2 Selection of Studies
Exclusion code (EX) | Notes |
---|---|
EX1: not primary prospective intervention study in humans | Include any intervention study (randomised trial, non-randomised trial, one-group uncontrolled study) that reports data from both before and after the intervention. Exclude purely observational or retrospective studies (but include where prospectiveness is unclear, if pre–post data are reported.) Exclude reviews and other secondary research (but retain systematic reviews for subsequent reference checking). Exclude animal studies |
EX2: not military population | Include any military population |
EX3: not aged 17–60 years | Include studies where the sample is entirely aged between 17 and 60 years; or where the mean age of the sample lies between 17 and 60 years; or where separate data on this age group are reported |
EX4: not relevant outcome | Include the following outcomes: muscle strength; muscle endurance; muscle power; aerobic capacity; anaerobic capacity; detraining response; injury (e.g. overuse injury, stress fracture, musculoskeletal injury); energy deficit |
EX5: not physical training programme | Include any form of physical training or conditioning intervention. Include multi-component interventions with an exercise or physical training component |
EX6: systematic reviews | Relevant systematic reviews were kept separate for screening of their included studies |
EX7: no data for both men and women, or different interventions for men and women | Exclude studies not reporting pre- and post-data for both men and women within the sample. Exclude studies not using the same outcome measure for men and women. Exclude studies where men and women received clearly different interventions |
EX8: not the same measure and sample at pre and post | Exclude studies using different outcome measures at pre and post time points. Exclude studies using different samples (i.e. different individuals, not counting attrition) at pre- and post-time points |
2.3 Quality Appraisal and Data Extraction
2.4 Statistical Analysis and Data Synthesis
3 Results
3.1 Results of Searches
3.2 Study Characteristics
Study | Country/service | Total Na | Sex | N by sexa | Study duration | Retention | Outcomes | Intervention |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Knapik et al. [22] | US Army recruits | 2580 | Female int | 515 | 9 weeks | NR | 2-mile run time, push ups, sit ups, injury rate | Intervention: Physical Readiness Program incorporated into BCT. Including calisthenics, dumbbell drills, movement drills, interval training, long-distance running and flexibility training. The programme was followed for the initial 7 (of 9) weeks of BCT, after which the int group switched to the same programme as the comp group. Comparison: ‘traditional’ BCT physical training including warm-up, stretching, calisthenics, variations on push up and sit up exercises and running in formation in ability groups |
Female comp | 651 | |||||||
Male int | 769 | |||||||
Male comp | 645 | |||||||
Teves et al. [32] | US Army recruits | 1984 | Female | 1004 | 8 weeks | 49% | \(\dot{V}{\text{O}}_{2\text{max} }\), hand grip strength, upright pull, incremental dynamic lift | 8 weeks of BT for phase 1 to phase 2 |
Male | 980 | 47% | ||||||
Knapik et al. [23] | US Army recruits | 1444 | Female | 496 | 7 weeks | 70% | Upper torso strength, leg extensor strength, trunk extensor strength | Army basic initial entry training; including 39 h of physical activity of calisthenics, strength exercises, running and marching. Calisthenics and strength exercises performed ~ 1 h/day 5–6 days/week |
Male | 948 | 77% | ||||||
Knapik et al. [21] | US Army recruits | 1138 | Female | 482 | 7 weeks | NR | 2-mile run time, push ups, sit ups, injury incidence | Intervention: BCT of ~ 1 h physical training each morning, including conditioning drills, movement drills, stretching drills, speed running, ability group running, and shuttle running. Comparison: N/A. Two comparisons are reported but neither provides usable effectiveness data |
Male | 656 | |||||||
Bell et al. [12] | US Army recruits | 861 | Female | 352 | 8 weeks | NR | Run time, push ups; sit ups, injury incidence | BCT; no further information |
Male | 509 | |||||||
Hart et al. [18] | Canadian recruits | 587 | Female | 278 | 9 weeks | NR | Incremental lift machine, max static exertion | BCT; no further information |
Male | 309 | |||||||
Yanovich et al. [38] | Israel Defence Force recruits | 420 | Female combat | 221 | 4 and 16 months | 24% |
\(\dot{V}{\text{O}}_{2\text{max} }\)
| Army BT for 4 months (and subsequent military service for 1 year). Undertaken in desert-climate conditions and in a gender-integrated battalion |
Female non-combat | 121 | |||||||
Male combat | 78 | 27% | ||||||
Wood and Kruger [36] | South African health and medical service recruits | 373 | Female int | 85 | 12 weeks | 98% (99% int, 96% comp) | Run time, push ups; sit ups, walk time, shuttle runs | Intervention: BMT programme. 48 × 40-min activity sessions over 12 weeks. Total components 322 min warm-up, 950 min jogging, 213 min interval training; 28 × body-weight upper-body endurance exercises, 64 × with 20 kg poles; 28 × body-weight abdominal endurance exercises, 64 × with 20 kg poles. Comparison: BMT as intervention but more time for warm-up and less endurance exercises, and the poles (weights) were not used: 630 min warm-up, 510 min jogging, 200 min interval training; 51 × body-weight upper-body endurance exercises; 56 × body-weight abdominal endurance exercises |
Female comp | 115 | |||||||
Male int | 100 | |||||||
Male comp | 73 | |||||||
Sharp et al. [30] | US Army recruits | 350 | Female | 168 | 8 weeks | 60% | \(\dot{V}{\text{O}}_{2\text{max} }\), upper torso strength, lower body strength, upright pull, dynamic lifting, vertical jump power, peak power, hamstring flexibility | BCT; no further information |
Male | 182 | 54% | ||||||
Vogel et al. [33] | US Army recruits | 345 | Female | 159 | 6 weeks | NR | \(\dot{V}{\text{O}}_{2\text{max} }\), muscle strength | US Army BT |
Male | 186 | |||||||
Evans et al. [16] | Israeli Defence Force | 257 | Female | 199 | 4 months | 77% |
\(\dot{V}{\text{O}}_{2\text{max} }\)
| Gender-integrated basic recruit training. Training programme included marching under load, running and jumping, battle drills |
Male | 58 | 71% | ||||||
Jetté et al. [20] | Canadian force recruits | 211 | Female | 96 | 9 weeksb | 71% | Incremental lift machine, static pull, shoulder arm push, grip strength, bicep curl | BMT included 63 × 40-min periods: 30% walking/jogging/marching and the rest consisting of roughly equal proportions of: physical training exercises, circuit training, sports, swimming and performance testing |
Male | 115 | 66% | ||||||
Patton et al. [27] | US Army recruits | 200 | Female | 100 | 7 weeks | 57% | \(\dot{V}{\text{O}}_{2\text{max} }\), run time | Army BT; 39 h of physical training over 7 weeks, including: daily runs, marching to field exercises; calisthenics, log exercises, rifle drills |
Male | 100 | 87% | ||||||
Sharp et al. [29] | US Army recruits | 200 | Female 1 | 100 | 8 weeks | 43% |
\(\dot{V}{\text{O}}_{2\text{max} }\)
| BT, no further information |
Female 2 | ||||||||
Male 1 | 100 | |||||||
Male 2 | ||||||||
Yanovich et al. [37] | Israeli Defence Force recruits | 176 | Female | 129 | 4 months | 84% | \(\dot{V}{\text{O}}_{2\text{max} }\), run time, push ups, sit ups, ground reaction force, peak power | BCT over 4 months, including average of 4 h running, 3 h marching, 10 h combat training and 5 h continuous standing per week |
Male | 47 | 60% | ||||||
Drain et al. [15] | Australian Army recruits | 174 | Female | 20 | 7–8 weeks | NR | Max box lift | 40 × physical training, each 45–60 min. Including: circuit training (7 sessions), running (6), swimming (3), load carriage (7), obstacle course (4), fitness testing (3), and familiarisation or skill-based sessions (10) |
Male | 154 | |||||||
Sonna et al. [31] | US Army recruits | 147 | Female | 85 | 8 weeks | 72% |
\(\dot{V}{\text{O}}_{2\text{max} }\)
| BT: 1–1.5 h, 4–6 days/week. Alternated between aerobic and muscle strength training (typically each 2 sessions/week). Aerobic training: 0.5–3 mile runs, timed according to ability, and sprinting. Strength training: push-ups, sit-ups. In addition, participants took part in road marches, obstacle courses, rappelling, and other physical training activities |
Male | 62 | 90% | ||||||
von Restorff [34] | German medical service recruits and temp volunteers | 110 | Female | 62 | 3 months | 89% | Right and left hand grip strength, lift from squat and from standing, press from shoulder level, carrying simulated patient of 60, 70, 80 and 90 kg | BMT, details NR |
Male | 48 | 75% | ||||||
Harwood et al. [19] | British Army officer cadets in the Royal Military Academy | 106 | Female | 38 | 40 weeks | NR | Run time, sit ups, static lift, dynamic lift, back extension, pull ups, progressive run | 93 × physical training sessions of 45-min. Term 1: basic fitness and battle training; term 2: endurance and battle training; term 3, preparation for competitions and military exercises. The PT sessions included conditioning (8), endurance training (mainly marching; 40), battle training (mainly assault course; 23), basic training (mainly gym skills; 13), and swimming (8) |
Male | 68 | |||||||
Rayson et al. [28] | British Army recruits | 72 | Female | 28 | 9 weeks | 64% | Run time | CMS(R); no further information |
Male | 44 | |||||||
Patterson et al. [26] | Australian defence force | 63 | Female | 28 | 12 weeks | 43% | \(\dot{V}{\text{O}}_{2\text{max} }\), push ups, pull ups, 30 s work, peak power, static lift, right and left hand force, bench press, leg press, run dodge and jump course time | 3 × 1 h sessions/week. Intervention group participants were split: those with low muscular strength received an intervention focusing on muscular strength, those with low aerobic fitness one focusing on increasing aerobic capacity. Both consisted of weight training, circuit training, running, pack marches, and box and skip sessions in varying proportions |
Male | 35 | 50% | ||||||
Richmond et al. [3] | British Army recruits | 60 | Female | 30 | 14 weeks | 53% | Run time, days lost to injury | CMS(R), no further information |
Male | 30 | 57% | ||||||
Daniels et al. [13] | US Army cadets at military academy | 60 | Female | 30 | 6 weeks | 90% | \(\dot{V}{\text{O}}_{2\text{max} }\), run time | Initial physical and military training programme prior to start of academic year. Physical training included 30-min run 5–6 ×/week in ability groups; unclear what other physical training was undertaken |
Male | 30 | 97% | ||||||
Blacker et al. [2] | British Army recruits | 54 | Female platoon | 19 | 12 weeks | 57% | Run time | CMS(R); no further information |
Male platoon | 17 | 77% | ||||||
Mixed platoon | 18 (9 females, 9 males) | NR | ||||||
Williams et al. [35] | British Army recruits | 52 | Female | 9 | 10 weeks | 60% | \(\dot{V}{\text{O}}_{2\text{max} }\), multi-stage shuttle run, 15 m box lift, repetitive lift and carry, loaded (15 kg) march, isometric 38 cm upright pull, incremental dynamic lift to 145 m | 10 weeks of BT with modified physical training (PT) consisting of strength training (28 sessions), endurance training (15) agility (8), material handling (6), sports (6), circuit training (4) and swimming (4) |
Male | 43 | |||||||
Marcinik and Hodgdon [24] | US Navy | 50 | Female | 15 | 10 weeks | 60% | Shoulder press, bench press, arm curl, lat pull down, one and two arm lift, leg press, knee extension, muscular endurance leg and bench press, max work capacity, sit and reach | Circuit training program performed on a multi-station gym. 3 sessions/week. Working at 40% of 1RM, 5 s work/15 s move to next station. 3 circuits were completed (11 stations). 1RM was re-evaluated after 5 weeks training. Exercises: bench press, shoulder press, hip flexor, pull-up (or leg lift for women), arm-curl, lat pull-down, leg press, knee extension, arm dip, sit up, handgrip |
Male | 35 | 83% | ||||||
Mason et al. [25] | British Army recruits | 42 | Female | 20 | 10 weeks | NR | Run time, ab curl, injuries reported, upright pull, heaves, lift mean power/max power/total work/max force, MSFT | CMS(R). Training included running, marching, strength training and sports. Mean daily distance covered 11.2 km |
Male | 22 | |||||||
Gambera et al. [17] | US Air Force active-duty personnel | 32 | Female ex | 5 | 90 days | 100% |
\(\dot{V}{\text{O}}_{2\text{max} }\)
| Intervention: Mandatory exercise program three times a week. Exercise to incorporate large muscle groups at an intensity of 60–80% of max HR for 40 min. Activities included walking, jogging, cycling, and step-aerobic programs. Comparison: Exercise as above, plus weekly individualised dietary counselling from dietician (Note that all groups received same training intervention; comparison not relevant for this review) |
Male ex | 12 | 100% | ||||||
Female ex + diet | 7 | 100% | ||||||
Male ex + diet | 8 | 100% | ||||||
Daniels et al. [14] | US Army cadets at military academy | 18 | Female | 7 | 23 months | NR | \(\dot{V}{\text{O}}_{2\text{max} }\), lost time from injury, upright pull strength, upper torso strength, trunk extensor strength, leg extensor strength | 2 years of training. Physical training: calisthenics, grass drills and 30-min run in ability groups 5–6 ×/week. Military field training: combat training and survival, physical training. Physical education classes (boxing and wrestling for Males, self-defence for Women) and a sport club |
Male | 11 |
Study | Sex | N baseline | Age (years) | Height (m) | Weight (kg) | BMI (kg/m2) | % body fat |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Knapik et al. [22] | Female int | 507 | 20.9 ± 3.7 | 1.64 ± 0.06 | 62.0 ± 9.7 | 23.0 ± 3.1 | NR |
Female comp | 637 | 20.7 ± 3.4 | 1.64 ± 0.06 | 61.2 ± 9.1 | 22.9 ± 2.9 | NR | |
Male int | 759 | 20.9 ± 3.4 | 1.77 ± 0.07 | 75.6 ± 13.3 | 24.3 ± 3.8 | NR | |
Male comp | 630 | 20.7 ± 3.3 | 1.76 ± 0.07 | 74.4 ± 12.6 | 24.0 ± 3.7 | NR | |
Teves et al. [32] | Female | 487 | 20.1 ± 3.2 | 1.63 ± 0.06 | 58.1 ± 6.8 | NR | 24.7 ± 3.8a |
Male | 465 | 19.2 ± 2.2 | 1.75 ± 0.07 | 72.4 ± 10.3 | NR | 16.0 ± 5.0a | |
Knapik et al. [23] | Female | 393 | 20.7 ± 3.2 | 1.62 ± 0.07 | 59.1 ± 7.1 | NR | 28.0 ± 4.7a |
Male | 769 | 19.8 ± 2.7 | 1.74 ± 0.07 | 70.9 ± 10.6 | NR | 16.3 ± 5.1a | |
Knapik et al. [21] | Female | 482 | 21.4 ± 4.0 | 1.63 ± 0.06 | 62.4 ± 9.7 | 23.3 ± 3.0 | NR |
Male | 656 | 21.9 ± 4.1 | 1.77 ± 0.07 | 78.4 ± 13.5 | 25.1 ± 3.8 | NR | |
Bell et al. [12] | Female | 352 | 20.0 ± NR | 1.62 ± 0.06 | 57.8 ± 6.3 | NR | 26.6 ± 4.0b |
Male | 509 | 1.75 ± 0.07 | 76.3 ± 12.3 | NR | 16.4 ± 5.6b | ||
Hart et al. [18] | Female | 278 | Range 17–25 | NR | NR | NR | NR |
Male | 309 | NR | NR | NR | NR | ||
Yanovich et al. [38] | Female combat | 221 | 19.0 ± 0.9 | NR | 60.6 ± 10.1 | NR | NR |
Female non-combat | 121 | 18.6 ± 0.4 | NR | 57.6 ± 9.5 | NR | NR | |
Male combat | 78 | 19.2 ± 1.1 | NR | 69.8 ± 13.1 | NR | NR | |
Wood and Kruger [36] | Female int | 85 | 20.0 ± 3.2 | 1.59 ± 0.06 | 60.2 ± 9.0 | 22.4 ± 2.5 | NR |
Female comp | 115 | 19.9 ± 3.1 | 1.60 ± 0.05 | 59.1 ± 8.7 | 22.8 ± 2.8 | NR | |
Male int | 100 | 20.2 ± 3.3 | 1.72 ± 0.06 | 61.8 ± 6.9 | 21.4 ± 2.2 | NR | |
Male comp | 73 | 20.5 ± 3.4 | 1.71 ± 0.06 | 62.3 ± 6.7 | 21.1 ± 2.4 | NR | |
Sharp et al. [30] | Female | 168 | 21.4 ± 3.4 | 1.63 ± 0.06 | 62.6 ± 9.8 | NR | NR |
Male | 182 | 21.8 ± 3.4 | 1.77 ± 0.07 | 78.9 ± 12.8 | NR | NR | |
Vogel et al. [33] | Female | 159 | 19.6 ± 2.3 | NR | NR | NR | NR |
Male | 186 | 21.1 ± 2.3 | NR | NR | NR | NR | |
Evans et al. [16] | Female | 199 | 19.0 ± 0.9 | 1.62 ± 0.06 | 60.8 ± 10.3 | 23.2 ± 3.4 | 30.8 ± 4.8a |
Male | 58 | 19.2 ± 1.1 | 1.75 ± 0.07 | 68.9 ± 13.1 | 22.4 ± 3.5 | 17.4 ± 5.0a | |
Jetté et al. [20]c | Female | 96 | 19.7 ± 2.0 | 1.63 ± 0.06 | 56.6 ± 7.1 | NR | 53.8 ± 14.8d |
Male | 115 | 20.1 ± 2.6 | 1.75 ± 0.07 | 68.3 ± 9.8 | NR | 36.7 ± 14.9d | |
Patton et al. [27] | Female | 100 | 19.7 ± 1.9 | 1.60 ± 0.06 | 56.9 ± 6.1 | NR | 28.2 ± 4.6a |
Male | 100 | 19.6 ± 2.0 | 1.73 ± 0.07 | 69.6 ± 10.6 | NR | 16.3 ± 5.0a | |
Sharp et al. [29] | Female 1 | 20 | 19.6 ± 1.8 | NR | 56.7 ± 7.1 | NR | NR |
Female 2 | 24 | 19.1 ± 1.3 | NR | 57.3 ± 6.1 | NR | NR | |
Male 1 | 22 | 19.0 ± 1.5 | NR | 73.4 ± 11.4 | NR | NR | |
Male 2 | 20 | 19.1 ± 2.0 | NR | 68.2 ± 10.2 | NR | NR | |
Yanovich et al. [37] | Female | 108 | 19.0 ± 1.0 | 1.62 ± 0.06 | 60.5 ± 10.0 | 23.0 ± 3.4 | 28.6 ± 4.2a |
Male | 28 | 1.74 ± 0.07 | 69.4 ± 12.6 | 23.7 ± 4.1 | 17.4 ± 4.9a | ||
Drain et al. [15] | Female | 20 | 23.1 ± 4.6 | 1.66 ± 0.05 | 64.0 ± 7.4 | NR | NR |
Male | 154 | 21.4 ± 4.2 | 1.79 ± 0.06 | 77.9 ± 12.1 | NR | NR | |
Sonna et al. [31] | Female | 85 | 21.7 ± 3.6 | NR | NR | 23.1 ± 3.1 | 27.9 ± 6.1e |
Male | 62 | NR | NR | 24.8 ± 3.0 | 16.4 ± 5.7e | ||
von Restorff [34] | Female | 62 | 20.2 ± 2.4 | 1.68 ± 0.07 | 65.3 ± 8.8 | 23.0 ± 2.8 | 27.7 ± 4.0a |
Male | 48 | 20.5 ± 1.8 | 1.80 ± 0.08 | 79.7 ± 13.3 | 24.5 ± 2.1 | 17.9 ± 4.4a | |
Harwood et al. [19] | Female | 38 | 23.4 ± 1.7 | 1.67 ± 0.05 | 65.5 ± 5.3 | NR | NR |
Male | 68 | 22.8 ± 1.4 | 1.80 ± 0.07 | 77.9 ± 8.7 | NR | NR | |
Rayson et al. [28] | Female | 28 | 19.5 ± 3.2 | 1.66 ± 0.05 | 61.8 ± 7.1 | NR | 23.0 ± 4.0f |
Male | 44 | 20.5 ± 3.5 | 1.75 ± 0.08 | 67.7 ± 8.6 | NR | 10.0 ± 4.0f | |
Patterson et al. [26] | Female | 28 | NR | NR | NR | NR | 78.0 ± 17.8d |
Male | 35 | NR | NR | NR | NR | 63.7 ± 26.0d | |
Richmond et al. [3] | Female | 30 | 18.6 ± 1.9 | 1.63 ± 0.06 | 57.2 ± 6.5 | NR | 20.0 ± 3.6f |
Male | 30 | 18.9 ± 1.6 | 1.80 ± 0.07 | 73.8 ± 12.9 | NR | 9.5 ± 4.0f | |
Daniels et al. [13] | Female | 30 | Range 17–21 | 1.64 ± 0.06 | 57.7 ± 6.0 | NR | 23.8 ± 4.0a |
Male | 30 | 1.77 ± 0.05 | 70.6 ± 7.6 | NR | 13.1 ± 3.2a | ||
Blacker et al. [2] | Female platoon | 19 | 20.1 ± 3.4 | 1.71 ± 0.08 | 65.3 ± 8.5 | NR | 15.0 ± 8.0f |
Male platoon | 17 | ||||||
Mixed platoon | 18 (9.9) | ||||||
Williams et al. [35] | Female | 9 | 19.1 ± 2.2 | 1.64 ± 0.07 | 62.0 ± 7.2 | NR | 24.9 ± 3.2f |
Male | 43 | 19.2 ± 2.6 | 1.76 ± 0.07 | 73.0 ± 10.6 | NR | 11.3 ± 2.8f | |
Marcinik and Hodgdon [24] | Female | 9 | 27.7 ± 4.2 | 1.66 ± 0.05 | 65.0 ± 9.6 | NR | 23.5 ± 5.7b |
Male | 29 | 33.8 ± 5.5 | 1.78 ± 0.07 | 83.1 ± 14.8 | NR | 21.1 ± 6.3b | |
Mason et al. [25] | Female | 20 | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR |
Male | 22 | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | |
Gambera et al. [17] | Female ex | 5 | 32.2 ± 7.4 | NR | 71.6 ± 3.3 | 25.1 ± 1.0 | NR |
Male ex | 12 | 32.8 ± 6.2 | NR | 77.1 ± 10.7 | 25.2 ± 2.8 | NR | |
Female ex + diet | 7 | 32.7 ± 8.3 | NR | 66.1 ± 6.2 | 24.0 ± 3.1 | NR | |
Male ex + diet | 8 | 33.8 ± 7.1 | NR | 86.9 ± 10.0 | 27.1 ± 1.6 | NR | |
Daniels et al. [14] | Female | 7 | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR |
Male | 11 | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR |
3.3 Study Quality
Selection bias | Study design | Confounders | Blinding | Data collection method | Withdrawals/dropouts | Overall rating | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Knapik et al. [22]a | Weak | Weak | Moderate | Weak | Weak | Weak | Weak |
Teves et al. [32] | Weak | Weak | Weak | Weak | Moderate | Weak | Weak |
Knapik et al. [23] | Moderate | Weak | Weak | Weak | Moderate | Moderate | Weak |
Knapik et al. [21] | Weak | Weak | Moderate | Weak | Moderate | Weak | Weak |
Bell et al. [12] | Moderate | Weak | Weak | Weak | Moderate | Weak | Weak |
Hart et al. [18] | Weak | Weak | Weak | Weak | Moderate | Weak | Weak |
Yanovich et al. [38] | Weak | Weak | Weak | Weak | Strong | Weak | Weak |
Wood and Kruger [36] | Weak | Weak | Moderate | Weak | Moderate | Strong | Moderate |
Sharp et al. [30] | Weak | Weak | Weak | Weak | Strong | Weak | Weak |
Vogel et al. [33] | Weak | Weak | Weak | Weak | Strong | Weak | Weak |
Evans et al. [16] | Weak | Weak | Weak | Weak | Strong | Moderate | Weak |
Jetté et al. [20] | Moderate | Weak | Weak | Weak | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate |
Patton et al. [27] | Moderate | Weak | Weak | Weak | Strong | Moderate | Moderate |
Sharp et al. [29] | Weak | Weak | Weak | Weak | Strong | Weak | Weak |
Yanovich et al. [37] | Weak | Weak | Weak | Weak | Strong | Weak | Weak |
Drain et al. [15] | Weak | Weak | Weak | Weak | Moderate | Weak | Weak |
Sonna et al. [31] | Weak | Weak | Weak | Weak | Strong | Weak | Weak |
von Restorff [34] | Weak | Weak | Weak | Weak | Moderate | Strong | Weak |
Harwood et al. [19] | Weak | Weak | Weak | Weak | Moderate | Weak | Weak |
Rayson et al. [28] | Weak | Weak | Weak | Weak | Moderate | Moderate | Weak |
Patterson et al. [26] | Weak | Weak | Weak | Weak | Moderate | Weak | Weak |
Richmond et al. [3] | Weak | Weak | Weak | Weak | Moderate | Weak | Weak |
Daniels et al. [13] | Weak | Weak | Weak | Weak | Strong | Strong | Weak |
Blacker et al. [2] | Weak | Weak | Weak | Weak | Weak | Moderate | Weak |
Williams et al. [35] | Weak | Weak | Weak | Weak | Moderate | Moderate | Weak |
Marcinik and Hodgdon [24] | Weak | Weak | Weak | Weak | Moderate | Moderate | Weak |
Mason et al. [25] | Moderate | Weak | Weak | Weak | Moderate | Weak | Weak |
Gambera et al. [17] | Moderate | Strong | Moderate | Moderate | Weak | Strong | Moderate |
Daniels et al. [14] | Weak | Weak | Weak | Weak | Strong | Weak | Weak |