Background
A brief history of nets, their use and treatment with insecticides
Trends in distribution and use of treated and untreated nets from the year 2000 onwards
Transition from untreated nets to insecticide-treated nets
Increasing household and population coverage with treated and untreated nets
Evidence for insecticide-treated nets in malaria control
Evidence for untreated nets in malaria control
How do mosquito nets actually work, and what do the insecticides contribute?
Insecticide | Country | Major vector species | Washing | Dosage (mg/m2) | Holes | Deterrence (%) | Bite prevention & feeding inhibition (%) | Toxicity (%) | Excess % exit | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alpha cypermethrin | The Gambia | An. gambiae s.l | Unwashed | 100 | Yes | 0 | 92.0 | 94.0 | – | [114] |
Washed | 100 | Yes | 0 | 91.0 | 74.0 | – | ||||
Tanzania | An. arabiensis | Unwashed | 25 | Yes | 25.0 | 82.6 | 32.8 | 1.9 | [108]a | |
An. gambiae & An funestus | Unwashed | 10 | Yes | 45.8 | 81.5 | 59.5 | – | [115] | ||
Washed | 10 | Yes | 27.9 | 67.7 | 24.8 | – | ||||
Unwashed | 20 | Yes | 21.2 | 68.5 | 63.4 | – | ||||
Washed | 20 | Yes | 13.6 | 66.7 | 43.5 | – | ||||
Unwashed | 40 | Yes | 11.4 | 79.1 | 50.1 | – | ||||
Washed | 40 | Yes | 44.2 | 79.2 | 43.5 | – | ||||
An. gambiae | Unwashed | 20 | Yes | 21.1 | 67.9 | 72.0 | 3.5 | [106] | ||
An funestus | Unwashed | 20 | Yes | 32.7 | 69.3 | 70.6 | 8.4 | |||
An. gambiae | Washed | 20 | Yes | 0 | 29.9 | 69.6 | 6.0 | |||
An funestus | Washed | 20 | Yes | 7.7 | 9.9 | 58.4 | 4.8 | |||
Permethrin | Tanzania | An. arabiensis | Unwashed | 200 | Yes | 33.7 | 72.0 | 49.8 | – | [116]b |
Unwashed | 200 | No | 20.6 | 61.0 | 41.9 | – | ||||
Unwashed | 80 | No | 10.6 | 71.2 | – | 28.3 | [103]c | |||
An. arabiensis | Unwashed | 25 | Yes | 35.3 | 85.8 | 15.2 | 5.9 | [108] | ||
Unwashed | 200 | No | 57.1 | 75.0 | 89.0 | 27.0 | [103] | |||
Unwashed | 1000 | No | 66.6 | 63.0 | 70.0 | 56.0 | ||||
An. gambiae & An funestus | Unwashed | 200 | Yes | 38.7 | 97.8 | 46.3 | – | [107] | ||
Unwashed | 200 | Yes | 20.5 | 82.2 | 29.8 | – | ||||
Kenya | An. gambiae | Unwashed | 500 | No | 15.0 | 83.9 | – | 50.8 | [112]e | |
An. arabiensis | Unwashed | 500 | No | 0 | 66.7 | – | 13.9 | |||
An. funestus | Unwashed | 500 | No | 35.7 | 85.9 | – | 49.6 | |||
An. gambiae s.s | Unwashed | 500 | No | 94.6 | – | – | – | [102]e | ||
An. funestus. | Unwashed | 500 | No | 96.7 | – | – | – | |||
The Gambia | An. gambiae s.l. | Unwashed | 5 | Yes | 33.0 | 96.3 | 74.0 | 2.0 | [36]d | |
An. gambiae s.l. | Unwashed | 50 | Yes | 45.1 | 98.2 | 75.0 | 4.0 | |||
An. gambiae s.l. | Unwashed | 500 | Yes | 69.9 | 98.7 | 79.0 | 10.0 | |||
Lambda Cyhalothrin | The Gambia | An. gambiae s.l. | Unwashed | 25 | Yes | 33.3 | 97.8 | 89.0 | 0 | [36]d |
Tanzania | An. gambiae & An funestus | Unwashed | 10 | Yes | 33.6 | 63.3 | 71.4 | – | [115] | |
Washed | 10 | Yes | 31.8 | 54.8 | 61.3 | – | ||||
Unwashed | 20 | Yes | 32.6 | 63.3 | 74.8 | – | ||||
Washed | 20 | Yes | 23.0 | 62.3 | 56.0 | – | ||||
An. gambiae s.l. | Unwashed | 18 | Yes | 26.4 | 96.1 | 98.5 | 10.7 | [117] | ||
Deltamethrin | The Gambia | An. gambiae s.l | Unwashed | 25 | Yes | 11 | 93 | 88 | – | [114] |
Washed | 25 | Yes | – | 87 | 74 | – | ||||
Unwashed | 500 | Yes | 60 | 98 | 72 | – | ||||
Washed | 500 | Yes | – | 87 | 54 | – | ||||
Unwashed | 25 | Yes | 22 | 98 | 86 | – | ||||
Washed | 25 | Yes | 0 | 87 | 87 | – | ||||
Tanzania | An. arabiensis | Unwashed | 25 | Yes | 30.7 | 81.4 | 33.0 | 2.5 | [108] | |
An. gambiae | Washed | 25 | Yes | 22.5 | 89.0 | 69.0 | 6 | [109] | ||
Unwashed | 25 | No | 0 | 90.3 | 83.9 | – | [105] | |||
Washed | 25 | No | 0 | 91.2 | 70.2 | – | ||||
An. gambiae & An funestus | Washed | 25 | No | 0 | 95.2 | 88.0 | – |
Typea | Insecticide | Country | Major vector species | Washing | Holes | Deterrence (%) | Bite prevention and feeding inhibition (%) | Toxicity (%) | Excess % exit | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PermaNet 2.0™ | Deltamethrin | Tanzania | An. gambiae | Unwashed | Yes | 20.6 | 90.0 | 95.0 | 0 | [109] |
Washed | Yes | 18.9 | 91.0 | 85.0 | 2 | |||||
An. gambiae | Unwashed | No | 0 | 93.0 | 97.7 | – | [105] | |||
Washed | No | 0 | 96.4 | 96.6 | – | |||||
An. gambiae & An funestus | Unwashed | No | 0 | 93.4 | 85.5 | – | [105] | |||
Washed | No | 0 | 98.2 | 93.0 | – | |||||
PermaNet 3.0™ | Deltamethrin | Tanzania | An. gambiae | Unwashed | Yes | 41.2 | 97.0 | 95.0 | 0 | [109] |
Washed | Yes | 22.8 | 90.0 | 94.0 | 0 | |||||
Interceptor™ | Alpha cypermethrin | Benin | An. gambiae s.l | Unwashed | No | 22.5 | 90.0 | 95.0 | 22.5 | [51]b |
Washed | No | 22.5 | 90.0 | 95.0 | 22.5 | |||||
Tanzania | An. gambiae | Unwashed | No | 0 | 88.0 | 93.0 | 15.0 | |||
Washed | No | 0 | 82.0 | 73.0 | 15.0 | |||||
An. funestus | Unwashed | No | 0 | – | 76.0 | – | ||||
Washed | No | 0 | 86.0 | 60.0 | – | |||||
An. gambiae s.l. | Unwashed | No | – | 93.0 | 88.0 | – | ||||
Washed | No | – | 79.0 | 84.0 | – | |||||
An. funestus | Unwashed | No | – | 67.0 | – | – | ||||
Washed | No | – | 61.0 | 96.0 | – | |||||
Olyset™ | Permethrin | Tanzania | An. arabiensis | Unwashed | Yes | 0 | 96.3 | 11.8 | 25.6 | [108]c |
An. gambiae & An funestus | Unwashed | No | 5.4 | 87.2 | 56.0 | – | [107] | |||
Unwashed | No | 0 | 90.3 | 55.0 | – | |||||
Washed | No | 0 | 97.2 | 70.0 | – | |||||
Unwashed | No | 0 | 80.4 | 49.0 | – | |||||
An. gambiae | Unwashed | Yes | 0 | 40.9 | 62.7 | 7.2 | [106] | |||
An funestus | Unwashed | Yes | 28.9 | 49.9 | 73.9 | 1.4 | ||||
An. gambiae & An funestus | Washed | No | 0 | 81.1 | 57.5 | – | [107]d | |||
An. gambiae | Washed | Yes | 0 | 0 | 40.0 | 5.9 | [106]d | |||
An funestus | Washed | Yes | 30.8 | 0 | 58.9 | 4.2 |
Diversion (or repellence)
Bite prevention and inhibition of blood feeding
Toxicity to mosquitoes
Delayed effects
Mass (community-level) effects
Bed nets and insecticide resistance: why use pyrethroid-treated nets in places where mosquitoes are resistant?
Importance of sub-lethal effects, coverage and physical integrity of bed nets used in settings with pyrethroid resistance
Importance of durability and functional survival of nets in the context of resistance
Could ITNs with multiple active ingredients restore insecticidal efficacy?
Could long-lasting untreated nets be useful for resistance management?
Where are the WHO-approved mosquito nets currently manufactured, and what role can malaria endemic countries play?
Product | Company/Address | Manufacturing facilities | Active ingredients | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Long-Lasting Insecticide Nets (LLINs) | |||||
1 | Olyset Net | Sumitomo Chemical Co., Ltd, Japan | Kinh 2A, Phuoc Lap, Tan Phuoc, Tien Giang, Vietnam | A to Z Textile Mills Limited Tanzania; Net Health Limited, Tanzania | Permethrin |
2 | Olyset Plus | Sumitomo Chemical Co., Ltd, Japan | Kinh 2A, Phuoc Lap, Tan Phuoc, Tien Giang, Vietnam | A to Z Textile Mills Limited Tanzania; Net Health Limited, Tanzania | Permethrin; Piperonyl Butoxide |
3 | Interceptor | BASF SE, Germany | Shanghai Gongtai Textile Co Ltd; China Taicang City, Jiangsu Province No.2, Fada Road | SunshineThailand Nonthaburi 11000, Office: 18/2 Moo 7 Rattanatibet Rd.,Bangkrasaw, Muang | Alpha-cypermethrin |
4 | Interceptor G2 | BASF SE, Germany | Shanghai Gongtai Textile Co Ltd; China Taicang City, Jiangsu Province No.2, Fada Road | SunshineThailand Nonthaburi 11000, Office: 18/2 Moo 7 Rattanatibet Rd.,Bangkrasaw, Muang | Alpha-cypermethrin; chlorfenapyr |
5 | Royal Sentry | Disease Control Technologies, LLC, USA | Dean Superior Textile Co., Ltd., China | – | Alpha-cypermethrin |
6 | Royal Sentry 2.0 | Disease Control Technologies, LLC, USA | Dean Superior Textile Co., Ltd., China | – | Alpha-cypermethrin |
7 | Royal Guard | Disease Control Technologies, LLC, USA | Dean Superior Textile Co., Ltd., China | – | Alpha-cypermethrin and pyriproxyfen |
8 | PermaNet 2.0 | Vestergaard S.A, Switzerland | Vestergaard S.A. Place Saint Francois 1, CH-1003, Lausanne, Switzerland | 10/10 Textile Joint Stock Company Production site n.1: 9/253 Minh Khai street, Hai Ba Trung district, 114034Hanoi, Vietnam | Deltamethrin |
9 | PermaNet 3.0 | Vestergaard S.A., Switzerland | Vestergaard S.A. Place Saint Francois 1, CH-1003, Lausanne, Switzerland | 10/10 Textile Joint Stock Company Production site n.1: 9/253 Minh Khai street, Hai Ba Trung district,114034 Hanoi, Vietnam | Deltamethrin and Piperonyl Butoxide |
10 | Duranet LLIN | Shobikaa Impex Private Limited, India | Shobikaa Inpex Private Limited SF No.558,559, Athur SIDCO Industrial Estate, Vennaimalai PO Karur-639 006, Tamilnadu, India | Shobikaa Inpex Private Limited SF No.37A/1, b&C,D,E Coimbatore Road, Thannerpandhal, Karur-2 | Alpha-cypermethrin |
11 | MiraNet | A to Z Textile Mills Ltd, Tanzania | A to Z Textile Mills Ltd; Plot No.698, Net world Area, Dodoma road, Arusha, Tanzania | – | Alpha-cypermethrin |
12 | MAGNet | V.K.A. Polymers Pvt Ltd, India | V.K.A. Polymers Pvt Ltd (UNIT-1) 169/1,170/1,192/3 Balarajapuram Village,Veerarakkiam, Karur District, Tamil Nadu, India 639114 | V.K.A. Polymers Pvt Ltd (UNIT-2 (EOU)) 1/79 Maduari By-pass Road (NH7), Sadiaya Goundan Pudhur, Kakavadi (PO), Kakavadi Village, Karur District 639003, Tamil Nadu, India | Alpha-cypermethrin |
13 | Veeralin LLIN | V.K.A. Polymers Pvt Ltd, India | V.K.A. Polymers Pvt Ltd (UNIT-1) 169/1, 170/1, 192/3 Balarajapuram Village,Veerarakkiam, Karur District, Tamil Nadu, India 639114 | V.K.A. Polymers Pvt Ltd (UNIT-2 (EOU)) 1/79 Maduari By-pass Road (NH7), Sadiaya Goundan Pudhur, Kakavadi (PO), Kakavadi Village, Karur District 639003, Tamil Nadu, India | Alpha-cypermethrin & Piperonyl butoxide |
14 | Yahe LN | Fujian Yamei Industry & Trade Co Ltd, China | Heranba Industries Ltd 101/102, Kanchanganga, Factory Lane, Borivli (W), Mumbai-400 092 India | Agros Chemicals India Ltd. Jhaver Centre, Rajah Ananmalai Building, IV Floor,19, Marshalls Road, Egmore, Chennai- 600 008, India | Deltamethrin |
15 | DawaPlus 2.0 LLIN | Tana Netting FZ LLC, Dubai | Sheikh Noor-ud-Din & Sons 4 km, Kanha Kacha Road, off Ferozepur Road, Lahore, Pakistan | Rosie’s garment factory nig. Ltd; 49a Milverton Avenue, P.O. Box 920, Aba Abia state, Nigeria | Deltamethrin |
16 | DawaPlus 3.0 | Tana Netting FZ LLC, Dubai | Sheikh Noor-ud-Din & Sons 4 km, Kanha Kacha Road, off Ferozepur Road, Lahore, Pakistan | Rosies garment factory nig. Ltd 49a Milverton Avenue, P.O. Box 920, Aba Abia state, Nigeria | Deltamethrin; Pyperonil butoxide |
17 | SafeNet | Mainpol GmbH, Germany | Jin Xun Ye (Huizhou) Textile Company Ltd (Main manufacturing facility) No.431 Bo Yuan Road, He Shan Village, Yuan Zhou Town, Bolou County, Huizhou City, Guangdong Province, China | Fujian Changle Xingcheng Synthetic Co. Ltd Baihu Section, Lianggang Road, Zhanggang Town, Changle City, Fujian Province, China | Alpha-cypermethrin |
18 | YorkoolLN | Tianjin Yorkool International Trading Co., Ltd, China | Tianjin Yorkool International Trading Co., Ltd.North of Yangliuqing Power Station, 104 National Road, Tianjin, China | Gaotang Xingyuan Textile Factory The Wind Road South Middle, Gaotang County Economic Development Zone, Liaocheng City, ShanDong Province, China | Deltamethrin |
19 | Panda Net 2.0 LLIN | LIFE IDEAS Biological Technology Co., Ltd, China | Life Ideas Biological Technology Co., Ltd, (Building 1#) No.6-4, North Jianda Road, Jiangmen 529000,China | Life Ideas Biological Technology Co., Ltd., Chengxi Industrial District, Hutang Town, Changzhou City, Jiangsu,China | Deltamethrin |
20 | Tsara Boost | NRS Moon netting FZE, Dubai | Sheikh Noor-ud-Din & Sons 4 km, Kanha Kacha Road, off Ferozepur Road, Lahore, Pakistan | Sunpack Hanjiang Road 368#, Changzhou, Jiangsu, China | Deltamethrin, Piperonyl butoxide |
ITN treatment Kits | |||||
1 | Fendona 10 SC | BASF SE, Germany | Tagros, India; Bayer Vapi, India | Alpha-cypermethrin | |
2 | Fendona 6 SC | BASF SE, Germany | Tagros, India; Bayer Vapi, India | Alpha-cypermethrin | |
3 | Pendulum 6 SC | Gharda Chemicals Limited, India | D-1/2, B-1/7, F-1/1, MIDC, Lote Parshuram, Talika-Khed, Distt-Ratnagiri Maharashtra 415722, India | Alpha-cypermethrin | |
4 | Pendulum 10 SC | Gharda Chemicals Limited, India | D-1/2, B-1/7, F-1/1, MIDC, Lote Parshuram, Talika-Khed, Distt-Ratnagiri Maharashtra 415722, India | Alpha-cypermethrin | |
5 | ICON CS–ITN Kit | Syngenta Crop Protection AG, Switzerland (Parent; ChemChina) | Syngenta Seneffe BV Syngenta Seneffe, Rue de Tyberchamps 37, B-7180, Seneffe, Belgium and Syngenta Hellas S.A. 2nd km Kinotiki odos Enofyta.Ag. Thomas 32011 Enofyta Viotias Greece | Lambda-cyhalothrin | |
6 | Vectron 10EW | Mitsui Chemicals Agro, Inc, Japan | Utsunomiya Chemical Industry Co., Ltd Shinshiro Factory, 11-4 Ihara, Oomi, Shinshiro-shi, Aichi 441-1315, Japan | Etofenprox |