A large body of research has demonstrated the adverse consequences of everyday caregiving to cancer patients on the physical and mental health of their carers, as well as existential and spiritual consequences (Luckett et al.,
2019; Zheng et al.,
2021). Due to the complex physiological and psychological aspects of cancer, daily caregiving demands require significant attention and personal involvement, which can cause negative effects, e.g. fatigue, sleep difficulties, somatic complaints, hopelessness, or anxiety. Consequently, spouses of cancer patients tend to mobilise personal religious and non-religious resources that can strengthen their mental and physical capacities and offer a sense of purpose and meaning. Although research has clearly demonstrated the beneficial effects of religion and hope on well-being and mental adjustment among cancer patients and their caregivers (Jeter,
2016; Zarzycka et al.,
2019), little is known about both the role of affect and underlying mediation and moderation effects in forming resilient attitudes.
Religiosity, Hope, and Resilience
In the context of cancer, religious beliefs and practices can be a vital source of resilience as they offer personal strength in times of adversity (stress, chronic illness, trauma, tragic events). This is primarily due to the fact that individuals can derive meaning and purpose from religion, which, in turn, predisposes them to both perceive stressful life events in a more optimistic manner and mobilise their coping abilities (Faigin & Pargament,
2011; Vitorino et al.,
2018). While facing challenges and burdens, people can find constructive solutions and explanations in the form of religious/spiritual support that enables them to overcome adverse events. It is therefore understandable that religiosity is associated with resilience which is usually understood as a personality characteristic that reflects one’s ability to effectively adjust and adapt to challenging life circumstances (Manning,
2013; Munoz et al.,
2017). Resilience can also be defined as a dynamic process through which individuals are able to regain or preserve their mental health while being exposed to significant adversity (Moeller-Saxone et al.,
2015). In this sense, resilience also appears to be particularly instrumental for cancer patients’ caregivers who are often overburdened with physical and emotional challenges.
Previous research has demonstrated clear connections between religiosity and resilience. Faigin and Pargament (
2011) claimed that religion through spiritual coping strategies can provide constructive solutions to challenging and stressful life problems that positively influence resilience. Positive religious coping that consists of having secure relationships with God and experiencing feelings of spiritual connectedness with other people was found to be associated with greater well-being and better mental adjustment in both clinical and non-clinical groups (Pargament et al.,
2013; Park et al.,
2018). Thus, benevolent attitudes with the sacred and fellow believers can play a positive role in one’s resilience levels and successful adaptation to adversity. Nevertheless, religion can also cause distress to individuals in the form of religious/spiritual struggles; these are experiences of distress and conflict in the sphere of religion and spirituality and tend to result in negative mental outcomes. Studies have identified that even after controlling for socio-demographic and personality factors, religious/spiritual struggles were positively associated with depression and anxiety and negatively with life satisfaction and happiness (Abu-Raiya et al.,
2015; Wilt et al.,
2017). This form of religiosity may thus create distress and decrease adaptation to adversity.
The empirical evidence suggests positive associations between religion and resilience in caregivers working with different groups of patients. In a group of female family caregivers of people with severe disability, religious involvement was related to more optimal adaptation, with stronger associations among those who were older, spouses, and black (Koenig et al.,
2016). Examining Alzheimer patients’ caregivers, Hemalatha and Banu (
2018) revealed a significant positive relationship between religion and resilience; religious beliefs and behaviour seemed to facilitate affirmative and empathetic attitudes of caregivers through providing ‘emotional nourishment’. In a longitudinal study, spiritual interventions based on religion and spiritual lessons were able to reinforce resilience in parental caregiving of children with autism (Pandya,
2018). Similar results were also found in older adults for whom religious service attendance was linked to higher resilience (Manning & Miles,
2018). Examining informal family carers, Heath et al. (
2018) concluded that religious and spiritual values seemed inherently influential during many decisions made by the carers.
Although a relationship between religiosity and resilience seems firmly established, little is known about psychological factors that can mediate this relationship. According to Snyder’s comprehensive theory of hope (Snyder,
1994; Snyder et al.,
2002), one of the factors that can have significant mediating importance for both religiosity and resilience is hope. (Snyder et al.,
1999; Snyder et al.,
2003) argue that human actions are directed towards goals and, in this context, hope is a cognitive set of goal-directed expectations that comprise two major dimensions: hope agency and hope pathways. The first represents one’s cognitive appraisals of being able to achieve certain desired goals, while the latter embodies one’s cognitive appraisals of potential pathways to goals. Snyder also maintains that hope has the capacity to influence resilience due to the cognitive-motivational characteristics that are instrumental in achieving one’s desired goals and overcoming life adversities.
Describing the relationship between religion and hope, Snyder et al. (
2002) pointed out that religion provides a coherent set of valuable goals related to religious and moral values, clear pathways for achieving those goals in the form of rules and laws, and agency thinking through which people can proceed along pathways to complete goals. Later research has confirmed relationships between religiosity and hope. Religiosity was connected to hope in women with breast cancer, as well as hope mediated associations between religiosity and coping styles (Hasson-Ohayon et al.,
2009). In a group of family caregivers of ill patients, Plakas et al. (
2011) demonstrated that religiosity was a significant factor which enhanced feelings of hope and provided strength for the caregivers to confront adverse situations.
Associations were also found between the religious meaning system, which is understood as a cognitive and motivational system reflecting the religiously oriented categories of significance and purpose, and hope among late adolescents (Krok,
2016b). Specifically, the religious meaning system was positively associated with both basic hope and hope for success, and, in addition, meaning in life mediated the relationship between the religious meaning system and hope for success. Based on a cognitive approach, the religious meaning system represents the orienting and meaning-making function of religion in regulating human cognitions, feelings, and behaviour (Krok,
2014,
2016a). It enables people to explain and understand both elements of the external world (e.g. metaphysical phenomena in the world, causal principles in nature) and particular events occurring in their lives (e.g. the multifaceted experience of suffering, the inevitability of death). The religious meaning system includes two dimensions: (1) orientation that enables individuals to orientate themselves and understand the world and their own lives and (2) meaningfulness that includes the perspective of interpreting life in terms of meaning and purpose.
The relationship between hope and resilience derives from the observation that both constructs are also closely associated with goal-directed activities undertaken in the context of adversity (Munoz et al.,
2017). Research indicated that hope contributed to the subjective experience of resilience; these associations mainly occurred on a shared basis of goals that had a crucial role in initiating goal-directed actions in the context of difficulties and challenges (Kirmani et al.,
2015; Munoz et al.,
2017). Accentuating attainable goals of competence and concentrating on positive goals, rather than evading potential problems and traps may foster positive adaptation and growth in the context of high risk or adversity (Masten,
2013). It thus seems plausible to point to goals as the common ground for resilience and hope.
Both hope and resilience refer to a domain of cognitive-motivational capacities which enable individuals to cope with adverse situations and constructively adapt to any emerging obstacles. Examining mother caregivers of children suffering from chronic physical illnesses, Horton and Wallander (
2001) revealed that hope was a resilience factor as it was negatively associated with caregiver-related distress. The salutary effect of hope was especially noticeable when mothers experienced a high level of stress caused by their caregiver duties and responsibilities. Bally et al. (
2014) also established that hope was instrumental in building the resilience skills of parents caring for children with cancer because of its comforting and strengthening effects and the ability to offer inner guidance in times of distress and uncertainty.
There have been studies demonstrating that hope was a mediator between religiosity and psychological factors, some of which might be related to resilience. In a group of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis caregivers, Jeter (
2016) proved that hope mediated the relationship of spirituality with psychological well-being. Examining university students and their family members, Nell and Rothmann (
2018) revealed that hope mediated the association between religiosity and subjective well-being. Hope was also found to mediate relationships between religiosity and psychological characteristics that had adverse relationships with resilience, e.g. depression in primary care adults (Chang et al.
2013). Such findings indicate that hope is likely to play a mediational role in the relationship between religiosity conceptualised as the religious meaning system and resilience largely on the basis of goals as it can enable individuals to formulate and accomplish their religious, moral, and ethical goals, and strengthen their goal-directed activities, which, in turn, is beneficial in overcoming adversities and facilitating successful adaptation.
The Moderating Role of Affect
Although there have not been direct studies demonstrating the moderating role of affect in relationships among religiosity, hope, and resilience, previous research conducted on caregivers emphasised an important function of affect in the domains of goal-directed and resilient behaviour. Positive emotions experienced by family members caring for terminal cancer patients were a significant source of the caregiver’s self-worth and perseverance in the face of distress and challenges (Grbich et al.,
2001). Religious service attendance, positive emotions, and hope for a better future were beneficial in helping family caregivers of people with mental illness to cope with the sustained stress of caregiving and to overcome adversities (Chadda,
2014). Different dimensions of religiosity (e.g. importance of religion, religious attendance) were related to lower depression among caregivers of people with dementia (Winter et al.,
2015). Religiosity was also positively associated with hope and positive affect, but not so with negative affect; in contrast, hope was positively associated with positive affect and negatively associated with negative affect in a group of university students (Fadardi & Azadi,
2017). Considering that positive affect may be linked to one’s ability to find constructive pathways for accomplishing goals, caregivers may be more likely to engage in goal-directed activities leading to overcoming adversities and adaptation in the context of caring for their relatives.
As regards resilience, negative emotional states, i.e. distress and anxiety, were conversely correlated with psychosocial resiliency factors in caregivers of intensive care patients (Shaffer et al.,
2016). Examining caregivers of advanced cancer patients, Palacio et al. (
2018) revealed through regression analyses that emotional distress was negatively associated with caregivers’ resilience. Those relations can be understood within the broaden and build theory (Fredrickson,
2001), which assumes that positive emotions contribute to well-being by broadening perception, thoughts, and actions. Drawing on the theory, Tugade et al. (
2004) suggested that experiences of positive emotion were conducive to building resilience in the form of being able to effectively ‘bounce back’ from stressful experiences. Taken together, it seems likely that two forms of affect, namely positive and negative, can moderate the association between religiosity and hope. We thus expected positive and negative affect to exert different effects on the relationship between religiosity and hope.