Introduction
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines suicide as “the act of deliberately killing oneself” [10]. Though realising that many deaths due to pesticide self-poisoning are not conducted with a wish to die, ‘suicide’ is a common terminology and thus used here for the sake of clarity |
The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence defines self-harm as: “intentional self-poisoning or injury irrespective of the apparent purpose of the act” [11]. This definition captures how ‘self-harm’ constitutes deliberate injury to oneself irrespective of whether the individual has a wish to die or not |
Methods
Search strategy
Inclusion and exclusion criteria
Screening and data extraction
Data synthesis
Results
Summary of included articles
Characteristic | Grouping | n |
---|---|---|
Study design | Case report | 24 |
Cohort | 12 | |
Case series | 5 | |
Commentary | 3 | |
Case control | 3 | |
Qualitative | 3 | |
Before-and-after | 1 | |
Systematic review | 1 | |
Year of publication | 2001–10 | 12 |
2011–20 | 35 | |
> 2020 | 5 | |
Country/region | Sri Lanka | 16 |
Korea | 6 | |
India | 5 | |
Taiwan | 4 | |
USA | 4 | |
France | 2 | |
Japan | 2 | |
Spain | 2 | |
International | 2 | |
Romania | 1 | |
South Africa | 1 | |
Slovenia | 1 | |
Turkey | 1 | |
Netherlands | 1 | |
Hungary | 1 | |
Greece | 1 | |
Myanmar | 1 | |
Asia | 1 | |
Setting/focus | Hospital admissions | 32 |
Community | 7 | |
Autopsy | 6 | |
National data | 1 |
Authors (country) | Setting | Pesticide | Impact of alcohol | Method of assessing alcohol use described | Gender | Summary of key findings |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Altay et al. (Turkey) [29] | Hospital | Brodicafoum | Negative/none reported | Yes | Male | Alcohol seems to be assessed via medical history. In this case, the patient did not have any history of ‘excessive alcohol ingestion’ but the article does not state whether the patient was positive for alcohol at the time of admission |
Aardema (Netherlands) [30] | Hospital | Parathion | Negative/none reported | NA | Male | The patient was admitted to emergency care after a suicide attempt. The patient was described as having alcohol abuse and depression but there is no suggestion that there was any alcohol consumed at the time of the suicide attempt |
Berman et al. (USA) [31] | Hospital | Malathion | Negative/none reported | No | Male | The patient had a history of alcohol abuse but no information is given of whether he was under the influence of alcohol when taking malathion |
Bilics et al. (Hungary) [32] | Hospital | Arvalin | Negative/none reported | Yes | Male | Seems that alcohol was assessed via medical history but unclear if the patient was positive for alcohol at the time of the suicide attempt but had a history of chronic alcoholism |
Boumba et al. (Greece) [33] | Autopsy | Alpha-cypermethrin; Deltamethrin | Acute | Yes | Male | The individual died from ingesting two insecticides; alpha-cypermethrin and deltamethrin along with an antidepressant. The BAC of the diseased had a BAC of 0.75 g/L and was noted as probably contributing to the fatal outcome as a secondary factor |
Boumrah et al. (France) [34] | Autopsy | Chlormequat | Acute | Yes | Male | The diseased man, a farmer, had a BAC of 1.15 g/L. The unusual method of injecting chlormequat could be because it has been used to euthanise pigs, although this is not legal. The diseased was a pig farmer. The report did not further explore how alcohol was ingested (it was not found in the syringe) or any surrounding circumstances relevant to alcohol use |
Brvar et al. (Slovenia) [35] | Hospital | Prohelan T | Acute | Yes | Male | The patient had ingested prometryn and an ‘unknown quantity of wine’. Ethanol in serum was 0.24 mmol/L (195 mg/dL). Discussion seems to highlight that the symptoms experienced relate to the exposure of both alcohol and prometryn |
Chao and Fang (Taiwan) [36] | Hospital | Paraquat | Acute | Yes | Female | Patient (female) had ingested paraquat along with rice wine and was found to have high serum ethanol level (227 md/dL) at admission |
Chomin et al. (USA) [37] | Hospital | Chlorfenapyr | Acute, chronic | No | Male | The patient had ingested chlorfenapyr and vodka and was described to have a history of alcohol and cannabis abuse. The ethanol level was 232 mg/dL |
Danescu et al. (Romania) [38] | Hospital | Carbofuran; Hydroxycarbofuran | Negative/none reported | Yes | Male | The patient was described as an occasional marijuana and alcohol consumer but the blood analysis was negative for alcohol |
Ellesworth et al. (USA) [39] | Hospital | Carbaryl | Negative/none reported | Yes | Male | Patient was negative for alcohol |
Fellmeth et al. (Maynmar) [40] | Community | Unknown herbicide | Chronic | Yes | Male and female | The man of the couple who died by suicide together was described as having a history of alcohol dependence, as did his mother whom with the couple lived and later were evicted from that household. Alcohol dependence, along with issues related to poverty and refugee related issues, were described as contributing to this paired suicide but not as a direct or single cause |
Fuke et al. (Japan) [41] | Autopsy | Imidacloprid | Acute | Yes | Male | The diseased had ingested a mixture of ethanol and imidaclorprid and the analysis of his blood showed that he was positive for alcohol at 1.0 mg/ml (femoral blood and 1.4 mg/ml in cerebrospinal fluid) |
Gupta et al. (USA) [42] | Hospital | Aluminium phosphide | Negative/none reported | Yes | Male | Only reports that the patient denied alcohol or drug use, but no tests for presence of alcohol are reported |
Lam et al. (Sri Lanka) [43] | Hospital | Bromadilone | Negative/none reported | No | Male | No information about acute alcohol use is reported, the study reports that the patient had diabetes and alcohol abuse which may imply this information is from medical history |
Martinez and Ballesteros (Spain) [44] | Autopsy | Chlorfenvinphos | Negative/none reported | Yes | Male; Female | No alcohol was detected in either of the victims |
Ntshalintshali et al. (South Africa) [45] | Hospital | Paraquat | Acute | No | Male | The patient had co-ingested alcohol with paraquat, noted as an unknown amount. The patient was noted as 'appearing to have alcohol intoxication' when examined, based on speech, gait and ethanol smell. No mention of any test to confirm what BAC the patient had |
Oh and Choi (Rep. of Korea) [46] | Hospital | Metaflumizone; Glyphosate | Acute | Yes | Male | The patient had co-ingested alcohol with pesticides and was noted to have a serum ethanol concentration of 187.8 mg/dL |
Pankaj (India) [47] | Hospital | Chlorpyriphos | Acute, chronic | No | Male | The patient was described as a chronic alcoholic and was under the influence of alcohol when consuming the pesticide |
Park and Choi (Rep. of Korea) [48] | Hospital | Fenitrothion | Acute | No | Female | The patient co-ingested ethanol with fenitrothion but it was not further described what level of ethanol she had present in her body or how co-ingestion was determined |
Planche et al. (France) [49] | Hospital | Glypohosate | Acute, chronic | No | Male | The patient had a history of alcohol abuse (about 50 g per day) and the authors noted that the 'toxicity of glyphosate may have been favoured by the patient's alcohol abuse history' |
Ruwanpura Sri Lanka [50] | Autopsy | Paraquat | Acute, chronic | Yes | Male | Man who died by complex suicide, ingestion of paraquat and influence of alcohol was part of the presentation. The man was described as an alcoholic and at the time of death his BAC was 1.85 g/L. The paper discussed that suicidal intent may have been influenced by being under the influence of alcohol and could explain his ‘irrational behaviour’ |
Yeh et al. (Taiwan) [51] | Hospital | Imidacloprid | Acute | Yes | Male | The patient had ingested insecticide along with alcohol in a suicide attempt and it was noted that he had consumed ‘200 ml of 58% alcohol daily for the last week because of depressed mood’. His BAC was 104 mg/dL |
Yoshida et al. (Japan) [52] | Hospital | Organophosphate | Acute | No | Female | The patient was described as having consumed alcohol prior to ingesting malathion but there is no report of her BAC or whether she appeared intoxicated from alcohol. The article does not note whether the ingestion was a suicide attempt but the consumption of malathion followed a row with her husband |
Author, year (country) | Article focus | Study design | Study setting | Population | Impact of alcohol | Summary of key findings about alcohol’s involvement in pesticide suicide/self-harm |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Abilash et al. (India) [53] | Profile of rodenticides used in self-harm | Cohort | Large tertiary hospital | 145 rodenticide self-poisoning patients attending an emergency department (ED) | Acute | 19% of cases were ‘under the influence of alcohol’ |
Alahakoon et al. (Sri Lanka) [54] | Respiratory failure (RF) and case fatality of organophosphorus (OP) self-poisoning | Cohort | Tertiary referral unit at teaching hospital | 540 (OP) self-poisoning patients | Acute | 32% of all patients (40% vs 29% of those with and without RF) had co-ingested alcohol; however, alcohol status was not known in all patients. The OR for RF in those with alcohol co-ingestion was 2.87 (95% CI 1.8–4.5, p < 0.001) |
Cha et al. (Republic of Korea) [55] | Impact of ban on paraquat on suicide rates | Cohort | National data | All suicides in Korea | Chronic | The study found a reduction in pesticide suicide following a ban on paraquat, which was not associated with population-level alcohol use |
Dhanarisi et al. (Sri Lanka) [56] | Impact of alcohol intoxication on clinical outcomes from profenofos self-poisoning | Case series | Two teaching hospitals | 243 profenofos self-poisoning cases | Acute | 26.3% of patients had co-ingested alcohol; 54.7% were daily consumers. Patients with alcohol co-ingestion had higher mortality (15.6% vs 5.6% p = 0.013) and more often needed intubation. Being older than 35 years (OR = 11.1) and co-ingestion of alcohol (OR = 3.1) were associated with increased risk of death. The risk of needing intubation was also higher in older (OR = 3.2) and alcohol patients (OR = 3.2) |
Dhanarisi et al. (Sri Lanka) [57] | Osmolal and anion gap changes following OP self-poisoning | Case series | One teaching hospital | 49 OP self-poisoning patients > 14 years | Acute | 26.8% of all OP patients were positive for alcohol |
Dhanarisi et al. (International) [58] | Alcohol and pesticide co-ingestion among self-harm cases | Systematic review | NA | 14 case series and cohort studies | Acute | Concentration of pesticide among patients who had consumed alcohol was only assessed in one study. Meta-analyses found increased risk of needing intubation (OR = 8.0, 95% CI 4.9–13.0, p < 0.0001) and death (OR = 4.9, 95% CI 2.9–8.2, p < 0.0001) among those who had co-ingested alcohol |
Eddleston et al. (Sri Lanka) [59] | Review of strategies to prevent and minimise harm from pesticide self-poisoning | Commentary | NA | Self-poisoning patients | Acute | The review summarised the effects of alcohol in poisoning cases and how this affects treatment and outcomes |
Eddleston et al. (Sri Lanka) [60] | Association between alcohol intake, pesticide self-poisoning and clinical outcomes | Cohort | Three hospitals | 72 dimethoate self-poisoning patients | Acute; harm to others | 51.4% had a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) > 0.05 g/dL (median = 0.15 mg/dL). There was a positive association between alcohol and dimethoate concentration. BAC was higher in patients who died but controlling for dimethoate showed that mortality was not due to direct toxicity of alcohol but the amount of dimethoate the patient had ingested |
Eddleston (Sri Lanka) [61] | Review the development of clinical research on pharmacology on OP and oleander poisoning in Sri Lanka | Commentary | NA | Self-poisoned patients | Acute | This commentary indicated that alcohol appeared to influence the amount of poison taken but the toxicity of the poison itself did not change because alcohol was present |
Eddleston (International) [62] | Review of clinical toxicology and pharmacology of OP self-poisoning | Commentary | NA | Pesticide self-poisoning patients | Acute and chronic | This commentary noted that high dose of ethanol might have impact on clinical outcomes such as coma. Co-ingestion is related to higher dose of pesticide consumed but evidence from one dimethoate study did not show that higher BAC leads to worse outcomes (the dose of pesticide does that) but a study of OP poisoning (did not separate out intentional from unintentional poisoning) found that a high BAC level was independently associated with death i.e. higher dose of alcohol consumed led to higher amount of OP ingested and increased the likelihood of death |
Gawarammana et al. (Sri Lanka) [63] | Clinical effects and toxicokinetics of bispyribac self-poisoning | Cohort | Two general hospitals | 110 patients with bispyribac poisoning | Acute | 14.5% of patients had co-ingested alcohol. Of the three patients who died, two had co-ingested alcohol |
Huang et al. (Taiwan) [64] | Clinical and psychiatric characteristics of self-harm with OP, carbamates, or glyphosates | Cohort | One hospital | 151 self-poisoning cases who received a psychiatric evaluation | Acute and chronic | Alcohol intoxication assessed for complex suicides (> 1 method) of which 54.2% were recorded as alcohol intoxicated, this was similar for repeated (55%) and non-repeated self-harm (53%). Among all patients who were assessed, 25.8% had alcohol use disorder, which was higher among repeaters (34.9%) than non-repeaters (22.2%) (NS) |
Kim and Lee (Republic of Korea) [65] | Co-ingestion of alcohol in self-poisoning (any poison) | Cohort | One general hospital | 286 deliberate self-poison patients | Acute | 64% of the sample had co-ingested alcohol. When broken down by ingested substance, a total of 7% among all deliberate self-poisoning cases were with pesticides. Among pesticide cases, 43% had co-ingested alcohol |
Kim et al. (Republic of Korea) [66] | Alcohol intoxication among suicide attempters | Cohort | Hospital | 2080 suicide attempters attending medical centres | Acute | Patients who were under the influence of alcohol used pesticides more than those who were not under the influence (not defined) |
Konradsen et al. (Sri Lanka) [67] | Explore underlying factors for acute pesticide poisoning | Qualitative | Community | 159 pesticide self-harm patients | Chronic, harm to others | Alcohol was mentioned as part of the reason for self-poisoning, either because the person (all men) was under the influence of alcohol or that there was an underlying alcohol problem. 40% of cases were linked to alcohol misuse and harm to others/impact of head of the household’s alcohol use led family members to self-poisoning |
Kumar et al. (India) [68] | Assess the types of poisons used in suicide cases | Cohort | One district hospital | 189 fatal self-poisoning cases (autopsy study) | Acute | 8% of cases were positive for OP and alcohol, 0.5% were positive for pyrethroid and alcohol, and 0.5% alcohol and phoshide. Total number of cases that were positive any pesticide and alcohol was 9% |
Min et al. (Republic of Korea) [69] | To compare outcomes in OP poisoned patients with alcohol co-ingestion | Cohort | Five emergency centres | 91 OP self-poisoning patients (overall poisoning patients N = 136) | Acute | The majority of OP poisonings were ‘suicidal’ as cause for ingestion (70%). There was no significant difference in proportion of cases classed as suicidal among those with alcohol co-ingestion (65.3%) and no alcohol co-ingestion (70.7%) |
Noghrehchi et al. (Sri Lanka) [70] | Association between age and sex with pesticide self-poisoning mortality | Cohort | Ten base and referral hospitals | 28,303 pesticide self-poisoning patients | Acute | 16.3% of cases had co-ingested alcohol. The OR for death for co-ingestion of alcohol (unadjusted) was not significant |
Prakruthi et al. (India) [71] | None stated | Case series | One general medical ward | 101 self-poisoning cases > 12 years | Chronic | 22.8% of the sample had 'alcohol dependence syndrome' |
Sola et al. (Spain) [28] | Describe carbamate suicide cases and develop a suicide database | Case series | One judicial district | 6 suicides (autopsy study) | Acute, chronic | Of the six cases (total number of pesticide suicides over the period was 24) that died by suicides from ingesting carbamates, two cases were reported to abuse alcohol which was confirmed by medical history. All cases lived in rural areas |
Sørensen et al. (Sri Lanka) [72] | Explore daily stressors in relationships, alcohol use and self-harm | Qualitative | Community | 19 individuals with lived experience of self-harm and 25 relatives | Acute, harm to others | The article describes one case in which an argument between spouses broke out while the husband was drunk which led the wife to self-poison with pesticides. Another case described a young man who due to relationship problems consumed pesticides after alcohol use beer for an entire day. In another case, a woman was hit by her husband in public while he was drunk and she pretended to drink pesticides as a response to his behaviour |
Tu et al. (Taiwan) [73] | Assess the characteristics and psychopathology of pesticide self-poisoning cases | Cohort | Hospital | 1,086 index episodes of self-poisoning (655 received psychiatric assessment) | Acute and chronic | 41.3% of all patients were alcohol consumers and 17.3% had co-ingested alcohol. Among patients who received psychiatric assessment, 15.3% had alcohol use disorder which was significantly higher among those ingesting paraquat and OPs compared to glufosinate ammonium and glyphosate. Alcohol use, co-ingestion and alcohol use disorder were not significantly associated with self-poisoning with any of the different pesticides. Of patients with AUD, 85% were men—of all men, 19.1% had AUD compared to 7.4% of women (p < 0.001) |
van der Hoek and Konradsen (Sri Lanka) [74] | Assess characteristics of pesticide self-poisoning cases compared to a control group | Case control | Two government hospitals | 200 cases of self-poisoning (510 controls) | Chronic | Among self-poisoning patients, a smaller subsample completed a mental health module in which 10% were indicated as having probable alcohol dependence. The OR for probable alcohol dependence among self-poisoning cases compared to controls was 5.26, CI = 1.06–26.11 |
Venugopal et al. (India) [75] | Assess the sociodemographic characteristics and predictors for liver injury and outcome | Case series | One general hospital | 101 patients with rodenticide poisoning | Acute | 20% of patients consumed the rodenticide ‘with alcohol’ |
Weerasinghe et al. (Sri Lanka) [76] | To compare factors associated with different access points and determine characteristics for pesticide access for self-harm | Case control | Community | Study protocol | Acute | Chronic use was set out to be assessed with AUDIT along with assessment of whether the person was under the influence when they purchased the pesticide |
Weerasinghe et al. (Sri Lanka) [77] | Test the feasibility and acceptability of pesticide vendor training to prevent sales to high-risk customers | Before-and-after | Community | 28 pesticide vendors | Acute | The training particularly included emphasis on not selling pesticides to intoxicated persons. The findings showed that 84% of vendors reported that the training increased their knowledge of the importance of not selling pesticides to intoxicated persons |
Weerasinghe et al. (Sri Lanka) [78] | Explore stakeholders’ perceptions for interventions to prevent pesticide self-harm | Qualitative | Community | 76 stakeholders | Acute | Training for vendors to identify and refuse sale to individuals who act in a way that suggests they might use the pesticide for self-harm or who are intoxicated was the preferred interventions as ranked by all stakeholders combined |
Weerasinghe et al. (Sri Lanka) [79] | Assess factors associated with purchasing pesticides for self-harm | Case control | Community | 250 individuals who bought pesticides | Acute | 28% of individuals who bought pesticides for self-harm were intoxicated at the time, compared to 0.5% of controls. This was particularly prevalent in individuals who were non-farmers. All cases who were intoxicated were men. Alcohol intoxication had the highest positive predictive value of all independent risk factors (93.3%, 95% CI 68.0–99.8). Other independent risk factors were being aged < 30 years and being a non-farmer |