Background
-
What is the distribution and geographical patterns of medicinal plants used for respiratory disorders across the Pakistan?
-
Which plant species are most often used for treating respiratory disorders?
-
Which plant parts are most commonly used in ethno preparations?
-
Which preparation modes are commonly used to prepare the medicinal recipes?
-
Which respiratory conditions are most commonly treated with medicinal plant species?
-
Have pharmacological studies been conducted to confirm the traditional use of the medicinal plants against respiratory disorders?
-
Which plant species are used in herbal preparations for the treatment of respiratory disorders?
-
What is the economical and conservation status of the plant species used for respiratory disorders?
Materials and methods
Data collection
Scientific name
| Family | Part used | Traditional use |
---|---|---|---|
Abelmoschus esculentus
| Solanaceae | Fruit | Throat, cough and bronchitis infections [43] |
Abies pindrow Royle | Amaranthaceae | Fresh leaves | Cough, asthma and other chest infection [44] |
Abrus precatorius
| Fabaceae | Root and leaves | Asthma, cough [45] |
Acacia arabica
| Apiaceae | Leaves and fruits | Cough [46] |
Acacia jacquemontii
| Myrsinaceae | Flower, seeds, leaves, stem, bark | Asthma [47] |
Acacia modesta Wall | Acanthaceae | Gum | Respiratory tract problems [47] |
Acacia nilotica
| Apocynaceae | Flowers | Asthma [48] |
Achillea millefolium
| Asteraceae | Leaves | Cold, flu [49] |
Achyranthes aspera Linn. | Amaranthaceae | Leaves | Pneumonia and asthma [50] |
Aconitum chasmanthum
| Ranunculaceae | Root | Cough, and asthma [51] |
Aconitum hetrophyllum
| Ranunculaceae | Root | Cough, asthma [51] |
Aconitum violaceum
| Ranunculaceae | Root | Asthma, cough [51] |
Adhatoda vasica nees
| Capparidaceae | Whole plant | Cough, bronchitis, asthma [52] |
Adhatoda zelyanica Medic | Apocynaceae | Whole plant | Cough, asthma [53] |
Adiantum capillus veneris
| Liliaceae | Whole plant | Coughs, bronchitis [54] |
Adiantum incisum Forssk | Liliaceae | Fronds | Cough and cold [55] |
Adiantum venustum
| Liliaceae | Rhizome and whole plant | Cough [40] |
Aesculus indica
| Liliaceae | Fruits | Cough [40] |
Ageratum conyzoides L. | Asteraceae | Leaves | Cold and coughs [51] |
Albizia lebbeck
| Moraceae | Bark | Flu, cough, lung problems [49] |
Alhagi maurorum Medic | Fabaceae | Whole plant | Respiratory diseases [54] |
Allium cepa
| Apiaceae | Stem, leaves | Cough [56] |
Allium humile Kunth | Alliaceae | Bulb infusion | Asthma/breathing, problem, cough, cold [40] |
Allium sativum L. | Euphorbiaceae | Bulb | Respiratory tract infection [40] |
Aloe barbadensis
| Liliaceae | Whole plant | Cough, asthma [52] |
Aloe vera
| Solanaceae | Arieal parts | Cough Suppressant [55] |
Alstonia scholaris
| Fabaceae | Bark, Leaves | Asthma [57] |
Althaea officinalis L. | Lythraceae | Flowers, leaves, roots, fruits and seeds | Asthma and bronchitis [56] |
Amaranthus viridis L. | Caeselpiniaceae | Leaves, stem | Cough [58] |
Amaranthus albus
| Amaranthacea | Flower, stem, leaves, seeds | Asthma [56] |
Amaranthus caudatus
| Asteraceae | Shoots | Cough and asthma [59] |
Amaranthus spinosus L. | Astraceae | Whole plant | Bronchitis [56] |
Ammi visnaga [L.] Lam | Amaranthaceae | Fruit and flower | Bronchial asthma/breathing problems, whooping coug [56] |
Anagalis arvensis
| Poaceae | Fruit, seeds, leaves, stem, flower | Flu [60] |
Anaphalis nepalensis
| Asteraceae | Flower and leaves | Asthma, cough [61] |
Andrachne aspera
| Leguminosae | Herb | Cough, bronchitis [62] |
Anethum graveolens L. | Solanaceae | Seeds | Bronchitis [63] |
Angelica glauaca Edgew
| Asteraceae | Ariel parts | Asthma, cold [64] |
Angelica glauca
| Umbelliferae/apiaceae | Roots | Cough [64] |
Apium Graveolens L. | Pinaceae | Seed and root | Bronchitis, asthma [65] |
Aremisia scoparia
| Asteraceae | Whole plant | Fever cough [66] |
Arisaema flavum Forssk. | Berberidaceae | Rhizome, fruit | Cough, cold [66] |
Arisaema jacquemonti
| Asclepiadaceae | Stem, flower | Asthma [67] |
Aristida adcensionis L. | Poaceae | Stem, leaves | Cold [68] |
Arnebia benthamii
| Boraginaceae | Stem and leaves | Asthma, cough [69] |
Artemisia maritima L. | Asteraceae | Aerial parts | Cough [70] |
Artemisia fragrans Willd. | Boraginaceae | Leaves | Asthma [71] |
Artemisia macrocephala
| Euphorbiaceae | Cold, cough, flu, asthma [70] | |
Artemisia scoparia
| Asteraceae | Whole plant | Cough chest problems [70] |
Artemisia vulgaris
| Asclepiadaceae | Leaves | Asthma [71] |
Asphodelus tenuifolius
| Apocynaceae | Stem, leaves, seeds | Cold [67] |
Astragalus psilocentros
| Leguminosae | Roots and thorny branches | Flue [42] |
Astragulus tragacantha
| Asteraceae | Leaves | Respiratory infection [72] |
Atropa acuminate Royle
| Ranunculaceae | Leaves, flower | Cold, flu [73] |
Avena sativa
| Poaceae | Fruit, seeds, leaves, stem | Asthma [74] |
Ayapana triplinervis
| Caryophyllaceae | Leaves | Cough [75] |
Azadirachta indica
| Solanaceae | Leaves | Cough [70] |
Bambusa bambos [L.] | Solanaceae | Leaves herb | Expectorant [76] |
Barleria cristata L. | Lamiaceae | Whole plant | Cold and flu [77] |
Bauhinia variegata
| Mimosaceae | Bark, root, buds | Asthma [78] |
Berberis balochistanica
| Berberidaceae | Wholeplant | Cough [79] |
Berberis lyceum
| Adiantaceae | Root, bark | Cough [78] |
Bergenia stracheyi
| Saxifragaceae | Leaves and root | Cough, asthma, lungh cancer, respiratory problem [80] |
Bergenia ciliate
| Apiaceae | Root, flowers and leaves | Coughs and colds, asthma [81] |
Bistorta amplexicaulis
| Polygonaceae | Leaves | Flu [70] |
Bistorta vivipara
| Polygonaceae | Root and stem | Chronic bronchitis [68] |
Boerhavia procumbens
| Rutaceae | Roots | Cough, asthma [70] |
Boerhavia procumbens
| Nyctaginaceae | Roots | Flue [70] |
Brassica campestris
| Chenopodiaceae | Flower, fruit, seeds, leaves, stem, pod | Cold [82] |
Broussonetia papyrifer
| Moraceae | Fruit | Cough [70] |
Bambusa arundinacea
| Solanaceae | Leaves | Cold, flu [83] |
Bunium persicum
| Apiaceae | Seeds | Cold, cough [84] |
Cadaba farinose
| Umbelliferae | Roots, leaves | Cold and cough [85] |
Calotropis gigantean
| Convolvulaceae | All parts | Cough and asthma [86] |
Calotropis procera
| Asclepiadaceae | Roots, flowers, latex | Cough [70] |
Cannabis sativa
| Cannabiaceae | Whole plant | Cough [70] |
Capparis aphylla Roth | Euphorbiaceae | Bark | Cough and asthma [87] |
Capparis decidua
| Solanaceae | All parts | Asthma, cough [70] |
Capparis spinosa L. | Capparidaceae | Flower and seeds | Asthma, cough [88] |
Capsella bursapastoris L. | Brassicaceae | Seeds | Cough, respiratory diseases [88] |
Capsicum annum L. | Asteraceae | Fruit | Bronchitis [70] |
Caragana brevifolia
| Papillionacea | Roots | Cough [80] |
Cardia myxa
| Chenopodiaceae | Flower, leaves, seed, bark | Respiratory tract infection [89] |
Carissa opaca Stapf | Myrtaceae | Leaves, root and fruit | Cold and flu [70] |
Carthamus tinctorius L. | Asteraceae | Flower | Cough, respiratory problems [70] |
Carum bulbocastanum Koch. | Apiaceae | Seeds | Fiue [90] |
Carum capticum L. | Violaceae | Seeds, leaves and flowers | Cough bronchitis and diarrhea [91] |
Carum carvi L. | Asteraceae | Stem and leaves | Bronchitis, cough [92] |
Carum copticum Benth | Solanaceae | Whole plant | Whooping cough [22] |
Cassia Occidentalis
| Mimosaceae | Leaves | Cough [22] |
Cassia fistula L. | Moraceae | Fruit | Cough and flue [93] |
Catharanthus roseus
| Mimosaceae | Whole plant | Cold, flue, bronchitis [70] |
Celtis australis L. | Ulmaceae | Leaves | Cough [94] |
Chenopodium album
| Fabaceae | Flower, fruit, seeds, leaves, stem | Cold [74] |
Chenopodium botrys L. | Chenopodiaceae | Stem and leaves | Asthma [67] |
Chenopodium morale
| Fabaceae | Flower, fruit, seeds, leaves, stem | Flu [62] |
Cicer arietinum L. | Moraceae | Fruit | Flu, cough [62] |
Cichorium intybus L. | Asteraceae | Whole plants | Asthma and breathing problems [70] |
Cichorium endivia Linn. | Asteraceae | Seeds | Cough [94] |
Cistanche tubulosa
| Poaceae | Whole plant | Cough [95] |
Citrullus colocynthis
| Cucurbitaceae | Leaves, fruits | Bronchial asthma [93] |
Citrus medica
| Solanaceae | Leaves, seeds and latex | Cough, cold, asthma [70] |
Colchicum luteum
| Colchicaceae | Coms | Bronchial diseases [86] |
Convolvulus arvensis Linn. | Astraceae | Whole plant | Cough, flu [67] |
Conyza bonariensis
| Brassicaceae | Whole plants, oil | Bronchial complaints [96] |
Conyza canadenisis
| Chenopodiaceae | Whole plant | Bronchial catarrh [52] |
Cordia dichotoma
| Moraceae | Whole plant and fruit | Dry cough [97] |
Cordia gharaf Ehrenb. | Oleaceae | Tree fruit | Dry cough [98] |
Cordia obliqua Willd. | Anacaediaceae | Fruits | Throat infection, common cold [93] |
Cordial dichotoma
| Boraginaceae | Leaves | Asthma [99] |
Coriandrum sativum
| Brassicaceae | Flower, fruit, seeds, leaves, stem | Respiratory tract infection [70] |
Coronopus didymus
| Brassicaceae | Leaves and tender parts | Asthma, bronchitis [67] |
Corydalis ramose
| Fumariaceae | Leaves | Cough [100] |
Cousinia stocksii C. Winkler | Asteraceae | Gum and roots | Asthma [101] |
Cucurbita maxima
| Polygonaceae | Seeds | Cough [38] |
Cupressus sempervirens
| Asteraceae | Fruit and seed | Flu and cold [70] |
Cuscuta reflexa
| Fabaceae | Whole plant | Cough [70] |
Cydonia oblonga Mill | Violaceae | Fruit | Cough [102] |
Cymbopogon jawaracusa
| Salvadoracea | Whole plant | Respiratory diseases [103] |
Cymbopogon jwarancusa
| Poaceae | Leaves, flowers and roots | Flu, and cough [82] |
Cynodon dactylon
| Ranunculaceae | Leaves | Asthma [94] |
Cynoglossum lanceolatum
| Solanaceae | Whole plant | Bronchitis, Cough [67] |
Datura stramonium
| Solanaceae | Seeds, flowers, leaf, fruit | Whooping cough [93] |
Datura alba
| Zygophyllaceae | Leaves and seeds | Asthma [103] |
Datura fastuosa L. | Solanaceae | Whole plant | Asthma [70] |
Datura innoxia Mill | Euphorbiaceae | Dried leaves, seeds and fruit | Asthma [70] |
Datura metel Linn. | Solanaceae | Whole plant | Asthma [70] |
Daucus carota
| Moraceae | Stem, root, carrot | Asthma, bronchitis [99] |
Delphinium brunonianum Royle | Ranunculaceae | Leaves, flower | Cough, asthma [88] |
Dendrocalamus strictus
| Scrophulariaceae | Leaves | Cough and cold [82] |
Desmodium gangeticum
| Caesalpiniaceae | Roots | Asthma and cough [45] |
Desmostachya bipinnata
| Nyctaginaceae | Leaves, root | Asthma [70] |
Diospyros lotus L. | Punicaceae | Flower | Cough [104] ] |
Dipterygium glaucum
| Euphobiaceae | Areal part | Asthma [93] |
Dodonaea viscosa
| Spaindaceae | Leaves, flowers and seeds | Chest infection [74] |
Duchesnea indica
| Rosaceae | Aerial parts, fruits | Cough [80] |
Echinops echinatus
| Capparidaceae | Roots | Cough [78] |
Eclipta prostata Linn. | Boraginaceae | Whole plant | Flu [70] |
Elaeagnus angustifolia L. | Elaeagnaceae | Fruits | Respiratory problems [70] |
Elaeagnus parvifolia
| Fabaceae | Shrub | Cough [105] |
Emblica officinale Gaerth | Euphorbiaceae | Tree | Cold, cough [44] |
Ephedra gerardiana
| Ephedraceae | Stem | Respiratory disorders, asthma/breathing problem [84] |
Ephedra intermedia
| Ephedraceae | Whole plant | Asthma and tuberculosis [70] |
Ephedra procera
| Cough and asthma [70] | ||
Ephedra ciliata
| Ephedraceae | Wholeplant | Chest problems, cough, asthma [84] |
Eucalyptus citirodora
| Solanaceae | Leaves | Cold, flue, and cough [93] |
Eucalyptus globulus Labill | Moraceae | Tree | Flue [70] |
Eugenia jambolana
| Solanaceae | Bark | Bronchitis, asthma [87] |
Euphorbia helioscopia Linn. | Fabaceae | Whole plant | Asthma, bronchitis, cough [60] |
Euphorbia tircucalli
| Mimosaceae | Juice | Cough, asthma [60] |
Euphorbia hirta
| Labiatae | Whole plant | Asthma, chronic bronchial [93] |
Euphorbia prostate
| Fabaceae | Whole plan | Asthma [87] |
Euphorbia thymifolia
| Salvadoraceae | Whole plant | Bronchial affection, cough and asthma [70] |
Evolvulus alsinoides
| Euphorbiaceae | Whole plant | Bronchitis [87] |
Fagonia bruguieri DC | Zygophyllaceae | Whole plant | Asthma [106] |
Fagonia cretica L. | Solanaceae | Whole plant | Antiasthematic, cough [94] |
Fagonia indica Burm. F | Amaranthaceae | Whole plant | Asthma [70] |
Ferula assa-foetida | Apiaceae | Root, stem and gum resin | Cough, asthma [70] |
Ferula narthex Boiss. | Malvaceae | Whole plant | Cough and asthma [70] |
Ferula oopoda [Boiss. and Buhse] | Apiaceae | Seeds, leaves and sap | Cough [107] |
Ficus benghalensis
| Moraceae | Milk of leaves, bark, root | Asthma [70] |
Ficus religiosa L. | Papilionaceae | Fruit, leaves | Asthma [78] |
Ficus carica L. | Moraceae | Fruit and leaves | Cough [93] |
Ficus elastic
| Moraceae | Bark, fruits and leaves | Cough, asthma [93] |
Ficus lyrata
| Molluginaceae | Whole plant | Asthma, cough [70] |
Ficus palmate
| Moraceae | Fruit, latex | Asthma, cough [70] |
Foenicullum vulgare Miller | Papilionaceae | Seed and leaves | Cough, pneumonia [108] |
Foeniculum capillacerm
| Asteraceae | Seed, root, leaves | Cough, and asthma [45] |
Fragaria nubicola
| Rosaceae | Root and fruit | Asthma [81] |
Fritillaria roylei Hook. | Asteraceae | Herb | Broncho-asthma [103] |
Fumaria indica
| Fumariaceae | Whole plant | Cough [109] |
Gentiana kurrooroyle
| Gentianaceae | Flower | Cough [110] |
Gentianodes olivieri
| Gentianaceae | Whole plant | Cough, chest problems [81] |
Gentianodes tianschanica
| Gentianaceae | Leaves | Cough [81] |
Glossonema varians
| Fruit | Cough [111] | |
Glycyrrhiza glabra
| Adiantaceae | Roots | Cough [70] |
Grewia optiva
| Ranunculacea | Leaves | Cough [59] |
Hackelia uncinatum
| Ranunculaceae | Flowers | Coughs [103] |
Helianthus annuus
| Papilionaceae | Flower, root, seed, leaves | Asthma, bronchial [81] |
Helianthus tuberosus
| Acanthaceae | Tubers | Cough and bronchitis and flu, respiratory diseases [83] |
Heliotropium europaeum
| Malvaceae | Whole plant | Cough [86] |
Heracleum candicans
| Apiaceae | Root | Asthma, cough [112] |
Hippophae rhamnoides
| Elaeagnaceae | Fruit juice | Cough [70] |
Hyoscyamus niger Linn. | Zygophyllaceae | Whole plant | Asthma, whooping cough [70] |
Hyoscyamus insanus Stocks | Caesalpiniaceae | Whole plant | Anti asthmatic [45] |
Inula grantioides
| Asteraceae | Whole plant | Asthma [107] |
Inula racemosa Hook | Violaceae | Root | Asthma and bronchitis [100] |
Ipomea carnea
| Malvaceae | Leaves, stem | Asthma [113] |
Iris hookeriana
| Iriddaceae | Flower | Asthma, cough and bronchitis [68] |
Jatropha curcas L. | Malvaceae | Bronchitis [94] | |
Juglans regia
| Euphorbiaceae | Fruits | Asthma [70] |
Juniperus excelsa M. B. | Cupressaceae | Seeds and leaves | Chest infection [84] |
Justicia adhatoda L. | Alliaceae | Cold | Cough, cold, flu [70] |
Lactuca serriola L. | Asteraceae | Whole plant | Whooping cough and asthma [70] |
Laepus nigricollis
| Bouidugs | Bronchial diseases [62] | |
Lantana camara
| Amaranthaceae | Leaves, root and flowers | Respiratory diseases [48] |
Lasiurus scindicus
| Poaceae | Stem, leaves | Cough [74] |
Lathyrus aphaca L. | Moraceae | Shoot | Hiccough [95] |
Launea procumbus
| Euphorbiaceae | Whole plant | Cold, flu, cough [57] |
Lawsomia alba Lam | Meliaceae | Leaves | Bronchitis [114] |
Lawsonia inermis alba
| Punicaceae | Powdered leaves, seeds, bark and flowers | Cough, bronchitis [57] |
Lemna minor
| Convolvulaceae | Whole plant | Cough [115] |
Lepidium sativum L. | Fabaceae | Shoot | Cough and cold [95] |
Leptadenia pyrotechnica
| Brassicaceae | Root, bark and leaves | Asthma [76] |
Limeum indicum
| Nyctaginaceae | Leaf and stem | Cold [95] |
Linum usitatissimum
| Papaveraceae | Seed, bark, leaves, flower and Oil | Cough, asthma [52] |
Lonicera periclymenum L. | Caprifoliaceae | Leaves and flower | Cough [116] |
Lychnis coronaria Lamak | Anacaediaceae | Roots and flowers | Lung troubles [117] |
Malva neglecta
| Solanaceae | Leaves and stem | Bronchitis, cough [8] |
Malva parviflora
| Cruciferae | Whole plant | Cough [118] |
Malva sylvestris
| Myrtaceae | Whole plant | Chronic bronchitis [84] |
Malvastrum coromendelianum
| Oxalidaceae | Flowers | Coughs [109] |
Mangifera indica
| Capparaceae | Flowers, leaves, kernel, bark, fruits | Asthma, cough [93] |
Marrubium vulgare L. | Umbelliferae | Leaves | Cough [51] |
Medicago denticulate
| Poaceae | Seeds | Respiratory diseases [119] |
Melia azodirachta L. | Salvadoraceae | Root | Lung complaints [120] |
Melilotus indica L. | Verbenaceae | Annual herb | Bronchial disorder [109] |
Melilotus parviflora
| Lamiaceae | Whole plant, seeds | Cold [53] |
Mentha longifolia
| Labiateae | Leaves | Cough [52] |
Mentha royleana Benth. | Lamiaceae | Leaves | Cough and cold [57] |
Micromeria biflora
| Fabaceae | Colds and coughs [121] | |
Mimosa pudica L. | Lamiaceae | Roots and leaves | Asthma [122] |
Mollugo cerviana
| Oxalidaceae | Fruit, stem, leaves | Asthma [75] |
Momordica balsamica L. | Moraceae | Fruits | Asthma [103] |
Momordica charantia L. | Poaceae | Fruit | Treat cough, bronchitis [123] |
Morus alba L. | Solanaceae | Flower, leaves, root, bulb | Cough [120] |
Morus nigra L. | Poaceae | Leaves, roots, fruits | Cough [46] |
Mukia moderaspatana
| Fabaceae | Flower, seeds, stem, leaves | Cough [118] |
Murraya koenigii
| Rosaceae | Leaves | Asthma [122] |
Musa paradisica L. | Amaranthaceae/Chenopodiaceae | Leaves, flower | Whooping cough [103] |
Nasturtium officinale R.Br. | Rosaceae | Leaves | Chest troubles [124] |
Nepeta praetervisa Rech. F. | Lamiaceae | Leaves | Cold, chest problems [84] |
Nigella sativa
| Ranunculacea | Seeds | Whooping cough [43] |
Nonea edgeworthii
| Cucurbitaceae | Leaves | Cough [103] |
Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. | Asclepidiaceae | Shrub flowers | Cough [73] |
Ocimum basilicum
| Solanaceae | Leaves and seeds | Bronchitis, cough, cold [52] |
Oenothera rosea L. | Lamiaceae | Whooping cough [70] | |
Olea ferruginea
| Leaves | Cough, cold, flue [103] | |
Onosma hispida
| Boraginaceae | Leaves, flower | Cough, respiratory diseases [81] |
Onosma bracteatum Wall | Moraceae | Whole plant | Asthma and bronchitis [125] |
Opuntia dillenii
| Lythraceae | Fruits | Asthma, whooping cough [83] |
Opuntia monacantha Haw | Caesalpinaceae | Whole plant | Bronchitis and asthma [126] |
Origanum vulgare
| Violaceae | Perennial herb | Respiratory problems, colds, flu, asthma [53] |
Oryza sativa
| Salicaceae | Fruit, leaves, stem | Cold [103] |
Oxalis corniculata L. | Ranunculaceae | Leaves | Respiratory disorders like bronchitis, asthma [103] |
Oxystelma esculentum
| Asclepiadaceae | Fruits | Expectorant, cough [93] |
Panicum antidotale Retz | Polygonaceae | Stem, leaves | Cough [103] |
Papaver hybridum
| Solanaceae | Petals | Flu and cough [86] |
Papaver nudicaule L. | Papaveraceae | Herb | Cough [120] |
Papaver somniferum L. | Papaveraceae | Seed, fruit | Cough [107] |
Peganum harmala
| Solanaceae | Seeds, leaves | Asthma [52] |
Pennisetum typhoides Burm. | Poaceae | Seeds | Flu and cough [78] |
Periploca aphylla
| Rhamnaceae | Whole plant | Nasal decongestant [54] |
Phalaris minor Retz | Solanaceae | Leaves, stem | Cold, cough [103] |
Phoenix dactylifera
| Capparaceae | Fruit, gum and seeds | Colds, bronchial catarrh [109] |
Phyla nodiflora
| Verbenaceae | Whole plant | Cold [93] |
Phyllanthus emblica
| Liliaceae | Fresh, fruits, seeds, flowers, leaves, bark | Asthma, bronchitis [70] |
Picrorhiza kurroa
| Scrophulariaceae | Root | Asthma [68] |
Pimpinella diversifolia
| Asteraceae | Fruit | Cough, cold [103] |
Pinus roxburghii
| Solanaceae | Areal part | Coughs, cold [44] |
Pistacia atlantica
| Anacardiaceae | Gum | Cough, Chestproblems [70] |
Pistacia integerrima
| Rosaceae | Leaf galls | Cough, asthma [70] |
Pistacia khinjuk
| Anacardiaceae | Fruits | Cough [84] |
Plantago lanceolata L. | Plantaginaceae | Leaves and seeds | Cough and chest diseases [70] |
Plantago major L. | Punicaceae | Leaves, stem | Asthma, cough [70] |
Plantago ovata Forssk | Brassicaceae | Seeds and husk | Cough and cold [101] |
Plantago lanceolata
| Plantaginaceae | Fresh or dried leaves | Relieving coughs [70] |
Polygonum affine
| Polygonaceae | Root | Lung disorder [110] |
Polygonum hydropiper L. | Polygonaceae | Aerial parts | Respiratory [90] |
Populus tremula
| Xanthorhoeaceae | Leaves, bark | Cough [74] |
Portulaca oleracea
| Asteraceae | Aerial part of plant | Asthma [86] |
Portulaca quadrifida
| Tamaricaceae | Leaves | Cold, flu, Respiratory problems [70] |
Potentilla bifurca L. | Rosaceae | Aerial part | Cough [57] |
Potentilla salesoviana
| Rosaceae | Flower | Cough, cold [57] |
Primula veris L. | Primulaceae | Flower | Bronchitis [127] |
Prosopis cineraria
| Moraceae | Fruit, pods | Asthma [70] |
Prosopis juliflora
| Asclepidaceae | Xerophytic shrub | Asthma, cough [70] |
Prosopis spicigera
| Cactaceae | Bark, leaves, flowers | Asthma [109] |
Prunella vulgaris L. | Asteraceae | Difficult breathing [70] | |
Prunus cornuta L. | Elaeagnaceae | Fruit | Asthma [92] |
Psammogeton biternatum
| Cough [101] | ||
Pseudognaphalium luteoalbum
| Asteraceae | Leaves | Asthma/breathing problem [110] |
Psidium guajava
| Malvaceae | Fruit | Old cough, bronchitis and chronic whooping cough [70] |
Punica granatum
| Punicaceae | Roots, fruit, rinds | Cough [70] |
Pyrus communis L. | Rosaceae | Fruits | Cough [89] |
Quercus incana Bartram
| Podophyllaceae | Bark and fruits | Asthma/breathing problems [89] |
Quercus leucotrichophora
| Plantaginaceae | Banafsha | Asthma, cough [128] |
Quercus floribunda
| Rhamnaceae | Seeds | Asthma [70] |
Ranunculus arvensis L. | Acanthaceae | Whole plant | Asthma [22] |
Ranunculus muricatus L. | Solanaceae | Asthma [103] | |
Raphanus sativus L. | Brassicaceae | Whole plant | Asthma [81] |
Rheum australe D. Don | Polygonaceae | Roots, rhizomes, stem, leaves | Cough [70] |
Rhazya stricta
| Asclepiadaceae | Whole plant | |
Rheum emodi
| Rosaceae | Floral scape | Cough and flu [38] |
Rheum spiciforma Royle | Polygonaceae | Roots | Chronic bronchitis, asthama [70] |
Rhodiola imbricate Edgew | Crassulaceae | Root | Cough [110] |
Rhus coriaria L. | Apocynaceae | Leaves, flower, root | Cough, asthma [130] |
Rhynchosia minima
| Mimosaceae | Leaves | Asthma [93] |
Ricinus communis
| Leporidae | Leaves | Asthma and cough [49] |
Rosa damascene
| Amaranthaceae | Bronchitis, cough [76] | |
Rosa indica L. | Solanaceae | Flowers | Asthma [131] |
Rosa webbiana
| Umbelliferae | Fruits | Asthma [51] |
Rubus fruiticosus Hook. | Violaceae | Whooping cough [128] | |
Rubus ulmifolius
| Rosaceae | Leaves | Cough [59] |
Rumex crispus L. | Solanaceae | Cough [103] | |
Rumex dentatus L. | Tamaricaceae | Fruit, stem, leaves | Cold [70] |
Rumex hastatus D. Don | Fagaceae | Whole plant | Asthma, cough [130] |
Rumex nepalensis Spreng | Polygonaceae | Leaves, roots | Lungs diseases [103] |
Saccharum bengalense
| Violaceae | Stem | Cough [56] |
Salsola baryosma
| Amarylliadaceae | Stem, leaves | Cough [74] |
Salvadora oleoidesdecne
| Apiaceae | Stem, root, oil, seed, leaves, bark | Cough [46] |
Salvadora persica L. | Salvadoraceae | Seeds, roots | Cough [107] |
Salvia nubicola
| Labiateae | Leaves | Cough, asthma and other respiratory issues [81] |
Salvia moorcroftiana
| Malvaceae | Root | Cough [52] |
Salvia officinalis Linn. | Liliaceae | Cough and asthma | Cough, cold [132] |
Saussurea atkinsonii
| Asteraceae | Aerial parts | Respiratory diseases like asthma, cough [133] |
Saussurea ceratocarpa
| Asteraceae | Whole plant | Asthma, bronchitis [68] |
Scorzonera tortuosissima
| Asteraceae | Roots, gum, flower, leaves | Cough and chest problems [107] |
Sema alexandriana Miller
| Asclepiadaceae | Dried leaves and pods | Asthma [52] |
Silybum marianum
| Sapindaceae | Leaves | Flu [35] |
Sisymbrium irio L. | Brassicaceae | Leaves | Cough [52] |
Skimmia laureola
| Solanaceae | Leaves | Asthma [128] |
Solanum melongena
| Adiantaceae | Fruit, leaf, root | Asthma, bronchitis [56] |
Solanum surratense
| Solanaceae | Berries, root, fruit | Cough, asthma [134] |
Solanum tuberosum
| Solanaceae | Leaf, flower and tuber | Cough [134] |
Solanum nigrum L. | Solanaceae | Leaf, berries, flowers, root | Cough, bronchitis [70] |
Solanum incanum L. | Acanthaceae | Leaves, seeds | Bronchitis [52] |
Sonchus asper
| Leguminosae | Whole plant | Cough, asthma [70] |
Spinacia oleraceal
| Amarylliadaceae | Leaves | Cough [103] |
Sporobolus ioclados
| Solanaceae | Stem, leaves | Cough [103] |
Stacia integerrima
| Scrophulariaceae | Bark and fruit | Bronchial disorder [103] |
Stellaria media
| Caryophylaceae | Herb | Cough [103] |
Suaeda fruiticosa
| Fabaceae | Flower, fruit, stem, leaves | Cough [103] |
Sussurea lappa
| Compositae | Root | Cough with cold [94] |
Swertia cordata
| Gentianaceae | Flower | Cough [110] |
Swertia petiolata
| Violaceae | Asthma, bronchitis [70] | |
Tamarix aphylla
| Amaranthaceae | Whole plant | Cough [135] |
Tamarix dioica
| Acanthaceae | Bark | Cough [136] |
Tamarix gallica
| Zygophyllacaea | Flower, fruit, stem, leaves | Asthma [58] |
Tanacetum senecionis
| Asteraceae | Floral parts | Asthma [57] |
Taverniera persica
| Myrsinaceae | Fruit, seeds, leaves, stem | Cough [74] |
Taxus baccata Linn. | Moraceae | Bark | Asthma and bronchitis [100] |
Taxus wallichiana Zuce
| Scrophulariaceae | Leaves and fruits | Pneumonia, bronchitis, whooping cough, asthma [128] |
Tephrosia lupinifolia
| Myrtaceae | Roots, leaf, stem bark | Asthma [70] |
Thymus linearis
| Labiateae | Arial parts | Cough, asthma [128] |
Thymus serpyllum L. | Lamiaceae | Dried leaves | Whooping cough, asth ma and respiratory inflammation [70] |
Trachyspermum ammi
| Malvaceae | Seeds and oil | Bronchitis, asthma and colds, cough [52] |
Trianthema portulacastrum L. | Amaranthaceae | Roots | Asthma [70] |
Trianthema triquetra
| Chenopodiaceae | Flower, fruit, leaves, stem | Asthma [74] |
Tribulus longipetalus L. | Amaranthaceae | Stem, leaves, fruit, seeds | Flu [51] |
Tribulus terrestris L. | Amaranthacea | Root and fruit | Cough, asthma [70] |
Trichodesma africanum
| Boraginaceae | Leaves and fruits | Cough and chest problems [107] |
Trichodesma indicum
| Boraginaceae | Leaves and flowers | Flue and cough [70] |
Trifolium resupinatum
| Malvaceae | Whole plant | Whooping cough [70] |
Trifolium alexandrium
| Poaceae | Stem, leaves | Respiratory tract [74] |
Trifolium pratense L. | Fabaceae | Dried flowers | Whooping cough, bronchitis and asthma [70] |
Trifolium repens
| Lamiaceae | Perennial herb | Coughs, colds [70] |
Trigonella foenumgraecum
| Acanthaceae | Cough [70] | |
Tussilago farfara L. | Asteraceae | Leaves | Cough, respiratory problems [70] |
Tylophora hirsuta L. | Poaceae | Root, leaves | Asthma and whooping cough [70] |
Verbascum thapsus L. | Scrophulariaceae | Flowers and leaves | Cough [128] |
Vernonia anthelmentica
| Asteraceae | Seeds | Cough, chest infection, Pneumonia [76] |
Vicia sativa
| Primulaceae | Whole plant | Respiratory diseases [70] |
Viola serpens
| Violaceae | Whole plant | Cold, cough and flu [70] |
Viola betonicifolia Sm | Asclepiadaceae | Whole herb and flowers | Lung troubles, cough and colds, bronchitis [70] |
Viola biflora L. | Pteridaceae | Flower | Cold and flu [22] |
Viola canescens Wall. ex | Violaceae | Floral part | Cough [70] |
Viola fedtschenkoana
| Violaceae | Whole plant | Cough [22] |
Viola odorata L. | Berberidaceae | Whole Plant | Flu and cold [22] |
Viola stacksii
| Acanthaceae | Whole plant | Cold, cough [70] |
Viola sylvatica Fries
| Acanthaceae | Dried plant | Cough, and cold [70] |
Vitex negundo
| Verbenaceae | Leaves | Flu [50] |
Vitis vinifera L. | Rhamnaceae | Flowers | Bronchitis [133] |
Wattakaka volubilis
| Phasianidae | Leaves | Cough, cold and other respiratory problems [70] |
Withania coagulans
| Meliaceae | Fruit | Cough, asthma [74] |
Withania somnifera
| Zingerberaceae | Fruit, seeds, leaves, stem, flower | Flu [52] |
Zataria multiflora Boiss. | Lamiaceae | Stem and leaves | Cough and chest problems [101] |
Zea mays L. | Poaceae | Cough problems [44] | |
Zaleya pentandra
| Aizoaceae | Root | Cough, phlegmatic cough and flue [70] |
Zingiber officinalis
| Asclepiadaceae | Stem, leaves | Flu [70] |
Ziziphus jujube Mill. | Liliaceae | Fruits | Bronchitis [93] |
Zizyphus nummularia
| Solanaceae | Fruit | Bronchitis [40] |
Zizyphus sativa G
| Rhamnaceae | Fruit and leaves | Bronchitis [104] |
Data analysis
Results and discussion
Ethno botanical surveys and distribution of medicinal plants
Province | Investigated districts for ethno-botanical studies | Under-investigated districts for ethno-botanical studies |
---|---|---|
Punjab
| 30 | 6 |
Attock, Bahawalnaga, Bahawalpur, Bhakkar, Chakwal, Dera Ghazi Khan, Faisalabad, Gujranwala, Gujrat, Jhang, Jhelum, Kasur, Khushab, Mianwali, Multan, Muzaffargarh, Narowal, Nankana Sahib, Pakpattan, Rajanpur, Rawalpindi, Sahiwal, Sargodha, Sialkot, Toba Tek Singh, Vehari | Chiniot, Hfizabad, Khanewal, Okara, Rahim Yar Khan, Sheikhupura | |
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
| 18 | 8 |
Abbottabad, Bannu, Battagram, Buner, Chitral, Dera Ismail Khan, Haripur, Karak, Kohat, Upper Kohistan, LakkiMarwat, Lower Dir, Malakand, Mansehra, Peshawar, Swat, Upper Dir, Lower Kohstan | Charsadda, Hangu, Mardan, Nowshera, Shangla, Swabi, Tank, Tor Ghar | |
Sindh
| 9 | 20 |
Ghotki, Jamshoro, Karachi, Kairpur, Sanghar, Sukkur, Tharparkar, Thatta, Karachi West | Badin, Dadu, Hyderabad, Jacobabad, Kashmore, Larkana, Matiari, Mirpurkhas, NaushahroFiroze, ShaheedBenazirabad. Kambar, Shahadkot, Shikarpur, TandoAllahyar, Tando Muhammad Khan, Umerkot, Sujawal, Karachi Central, Karachi East, Karachi South, Korangi, Malir | |
Gilgit Baltistan
| 7 | 1 |
Ghanche, Skardu, Astore, Diamer, Ghizer, Gilgit, Hunzanagar | Kharmang | |
Kashmir
| 10 | |
Muzaffarabad, Hattian, Neelum, Mirpur, Bhimber, Kotli, Poonch, Bagh, Haveli, Sudhnati | ||
Baluchistan
| 12 | 20 |
Awaran, Barkhan, Kachhi (Bolan), Chagai, Gwadar, Kalat, Khuzdar, Lasbela, Mastung, Musakhel, Quetta, Ziarat | Dera Bugti, Harnai, Jafarabad, Jhal Magsi, Kech (Turbat), Kharan, Kohlu, Killa Abdullah, Killa Saifullah, Loralai, Nasirabad, Nushki, Panjgur, Pishin, Sherani, Sibi, Washuk, Zhob, Lehri, Sohbatpur |
Diversity, habit, and part used of medicinal plants
Use and mode of preparation
Pharmacological evaluation and herbal preparations
Scientific name | Family | Part used | Traditional use | Pharmacological effect | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Abies pindrow
| Amaranthaceae | Leaves | Cough, asthma and other chest infection | Brochoprotective against histamine-induced bronchospasm, cromoglycate-like action on the mast cells and inhibition of sensitization and synthesis of reaginic-type antibodies | [40] |
Abrus precatorius
| Leguminosae | Root and leaves | Asthma, cough | Anti-allergic and Mast cell stabilizing effect in egg albumin induced degranulation of mast cells | |
Achyranthes aspera Linn. | Amaranthaceae | Leaves | Pneumonia and asthma | Antihistaminic, anti-inflammatory, mast cell stabilizer and bronchoprotective effect. Inhibits action of histamine, acetylcholine and 5-HT | |
Albizia lebbeck Benth | Moraceae | Bark | Flu, cough, lung problems | Bronchodialator, Anti-allergic, Mast cell stabilizing property due to histamine release and cytokine expression of antigen –ige activated mast cells | |
Alstonia scholaris
| Fabaceae | Bark, Leaves | Asthma | Bronchodialator, anti-tussive effect against sulfur dioxide induced mice coughing and citric acid induced guinea pigs coughing. Anti-asthmatic activity against histamine induced bronchoconstriction | |
Althaea officinalis L. | Lythraceae | Flowers, leaves, roots, fruits | Asthma and bronchitis | Cough suppressant activity in citric acid-induced cough reflex | [145] |
Artemisia vulgaris
| Asclepiadaceae | Leaves | Asthma | Bronchodilator due to anticholinergic and Ca2+ antagonist mechanisms | [146] |
Artemisia maritime
| Asteraceae | Aerial parts | Cough | Bronchodilator activities mediated possibly through dual blockade of calcium channels and phosphodiesterase | [102] |
Adhatoda vasica
| Capparidaceae | Whole plant | Cough, bronchitis, asthma | Antiallergic, anti-anaphylactic, anti-inflammatory, antitussive, bronchodilator and bronchoprotective activity | |
Allium cepa
| Apiaceae | Stem, leaves | Cough | Mast cell membrane stabilizing activity through inhibitor of mast cell secretion and decrease in the release of tryptase, MCP-1 and IL-6 | [150] |
Bauhinia variegata
| Mimosaceae | Bark, root, buds | Asthma | Mast cell membrane stabilizing effect | [151] |
Boerhavia procumbens
| Rutaceae | Roots | Cough, asthma | Anti-asthmatic and anti-inflammatory properties in Toluene diisocyanate (TDI) allergic model in rat | [152] |
Cynodon dactylon
| Ranunculaceae | Leaves | Asthma | Anti-anaphylactic activity and mast cell stabilizing activity | [153] |
Emblica officinalis
| Euphorbiaceae | Tree | Cold, cough | Anti-tussive activity | [37] |
Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) Vent. | Moraceae | Fruit | Cough | Protective effect in lung inflammation and bronchitis | [154] |
Bunium persicum
| Apiaceae | Seeds | Cold, cough | Anti-histaminic effect | [155] |
Calotropis gigantean
| Convolvulaceae | All parts | Cough and asthma | Protective effect in anaphylaxis and allergic disorders due to antihistaminic and mast cell stabilizing effect | [156] |
Cannabis sativa
| Cannabiaceae | Whole plant | Cough | Bronchodilator | [157] |
Capparis spinosa L. | Capparidaceae | Flowerl, seeds | Asthma, cough | Antiallergic and antihistaminic effect Bronchorelaxant effects in histamine-induced bronchospasm | [158] |
Capsicum annum L. | Asteraceae | Fruit | Bronchitis | Bronchodilator | [159] |
Carum capticum L. | Violaceae | Seeds, leaves and flowers | Cough bronchitis and diarrhea | Bronchodilatory and anti-cholinergic effect, anti-histamine effect | |
Carum carvi L. | Asteraceae | Stem and leaves | Bronchitis, cough | Bronchodilatory and anti-cholinergic effect | [163] |
Ephedra gerardiana
| Ephedraceae | Stem | Asthma/breathing problem | Anti-asthmatic activity in ovalbumin induced mice model | [164] |
Euphorbia hirta
| Labiatae | Whole plant | Asthma | Antihistaminic, antiallergic activity and mast cell from degranulation | [165] |
Ficus religiosa L. | Papilionaceae | Fruit, leaves | Asthma | Mast cell stabilizing effect in histamine and acetylcholine induced bronchospasm model | [166] |
Inula racemosa
| Violaceae | Root | Asthma andbronchitis | Anti-histaminic, anti-serotonergic and Mast cell membrane stabilizing activity | [167] |
Lepidium sativum
| Fabaceae | Shoot | Cough and cold | Bronchodilator activity in histamine and acetylcholine induced bronchospasm model | [168] |
Mimosa pudica Linn. | Lamiaceae | Roots, leaves | Asthma | Bronchodilator in histamine induced bronchospasm model | [169] |
Nyctanthes arbortristis
| Asclepidiaceae | Shrub flowers | Cough | Antihistaminic activity | [170] |
Glycyrrhiza glabra
| Adiantaceae | Roots | Cough | Demulscent, anti-tussive and anti-asthmatic effects via modulation of th1/th2 cytokines and enhancement of cd4+ cd25+ foxp3+ regulatory t cells in ovalbumin-sensitized mice | |
Helianthus annuus
| Papilionaceae | Flower, root, seed, leaves | Asthma, bronchial | Anti-asthmatic effect in Ovalbumin-induced mice | [172] |
Hyoscyamus niger Linn. | Zygophyllaceae | Whole plant | Asthma, whooping cough | Bronchodilator effect through dual blockade of muscarinic receptors and Ca2+ channels | [173] |
Trachyspermum ammi
| Malvaceae | Seeds and oil | Bronchitis, asthma and colds, cough | Antiallergic, bronchodilator and spasmolytic effect (calcium antagonist) | [173] |
Mangifera indica
| Capparaceae | Flowers, leaves, bark and fruits | Asthma, cough | Anti-allergic, anti-asthmatic anti-cholinergic and anti-histamine effect | |
Murraya koenigii
| Rosaceae | Leaves | Asthma | Mast cell membrane stabilizing activity, anti-histaminic and anti-cholinergic effect | |
Nigella sativa
| Ranunculacea | Seeds | Whooping cough | Anti-histamine, bronchodilator and anti-asthmatic effect in asthmatic patients | |
Ocimum basilicum
| Solanaceae | Leaves and seeds | Bronchitis, cough, cold | Bronchodilator and vasodilator activities through dual blockade of muscarinic receptors and Ca2+ channels | [180] |
Onosma bracteatum
| Moraceae | Whole plant | Asthma and bronchitis | Anti-allergic and anti-inflammatory action in bronchial hyperreactivity | |
Oryza sativa
| Salicaceae | Fruit, leaves, stem | Cold | Antianaphylactic effect, anti-inflammatory action by inhibition of histamine release from mast cells | |
Papaver nudicaule L. | Papaveraceae | Herb | Cough | Cough and asthma-relieving effects in histamine phosphate induced asthma in guinea pigs | [185] |
Portula caoleracea
| Asteraceae | Aerial parts | Asthma | Bronchodilator, anti-tussive and anti-asthmatic effect in histamiin induced asthmatic model bronchodilator effect, anti-tussive and anti-asthmatic effect | |
Ricinus communis
| Leporidae | Leaves | Asthma and cough | Antiasthmatic activity in milk induced leukocytosis and eosinophilic mice | [188] |
Salvia officinalis Linn. | Liliaceae | Leaves | Cough, cold | Bronchodilator effect via activation of voltage-dependent K+ channels and inhibition of phosphodiesterase enzyme | [129] |
Solanum nigrum L. | Solanaceae | Leaf, berries, flowers, root and stem | Cough, bronchitis | Mast cell stabilizing effect in milk-induced leucocytosis and eosinophilic mice | [189] |
Spinacia oleracea L. | Amarylliadaceae | Leaves | Cough | Anti-asthmatic effect in ovalbumin-induced asthmatic model | [190] |
Taxus baccata Linn. | Moraceae | Bark | Asthma and bronchitis | Protective effect against bronchoconstriction and bronchial hyperreactivity in e histamine and acetylcholine aerosol induced bronchospasm | [191] |
Viola odorata L. | Berberidaceae | Whole Plant | Flu and cold | Anti-asthmatic effect and Bronchodilator | |
Artemisia scoparia Waldst. and Kit. | Asteraceae | Whole plant | Cough, chest problems | Anti-asthmatic effect | [194] |
Vitexnegundo Linn. | Verbenaceae | Leaves | Flu | Anti-asthmatic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-allergic mast cell stabilizing and bronchodilatory activity | [182] |
Cistanche tubulosa
| Poaceae | Whole plant | Cough | Mast cell membrane stabilizing activity, anti-allergic effect | |
Zingiber officinalis
| Asclepiadaceae | Stem, leaves | Flu | Anti-asthmatic anti-inflammatory and protection against LPS induced airway hyperreactivity | |
Ziziphus jujuba Mill | Liliaceae | Fruits | Bronchitis | Anti-allergic and anti-anaphylactic activity, anti-histamine action in milk induced eosinophilia and leukocytosis |
Sr. no. | Brand (manu-facturer) | Use /dose | Composition | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ephedra gerardiana
|
Papaver somniferum
|
Achyranthes aspera
|
Glycyrrhiza glabra
|
Menthe arvensis
|
Valeriana officinalis
|
Mentha piperita
|
Hyssopus parvifloria
|
Zizphus vulgaris
| |||
1. | Corezcol [1] | Expectorant/10 ml 6 times/day | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||||
2. | Hoopinil [1] | Cough/10 ml 6 times/day | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |||||
3. | Asthimna [1] | Asthma/10 ml TID | ✓ | ✓ | |||||||
4. | Expectum [1] | Expectorant/10 ml 6 times/day | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||||
5. | Joshabasadar [2] | Cough/10 ml OD | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||||||
6. | Linkus [3] | Cough/10 ml TID | ✓ | ✓ | |||||||
7. | Shaafijoshanda [3] | Cough/1 sachet flu/BID | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||||||
8. | Sualin [2] | Cough, flu/1–2 tablets TID | ✓ | ||||||||
9. | Suduri [2] | Bronchitis/10 ml 6 times/day | ✓ | ||||||||
10. | Joharjoshanda [1] | Cough/1 sachet flu/BID | ✓ | ||||||||
11. | Tiryaq e nazla [2] | Cough, flu/6 gm OD | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||||||
12. | Infuza [2] | Asthma/10 ml OD | ✓ | ||||||||
13. | Joshina [2] | Bronchitis/1 sachet BID | ✓ | ||||||||
14. | Sharbatsadar [1] | Bronchitis/10 ml TID | ✓ | ✓ | |||||||
15. | Surfali [4] | Cough/10 ml TID | ✓ | ||||||||
16. | Joshanda [2] | Cough and flu/1 sacet TID | ✓ | ||||||||
17. | Sharbat e banafsha [1] | Cough/30 ml BID |
Sr. no. | Brand (manu-facturer) | Use /dose | Composition | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mentha arvensis
|
Ocimum basilicum
|
Adhatoda vasica
|
Onosma bracteatum
|
Viola odorata
|
Acacia arabica
|
Zizphus sativa
|
Foeniculum vulgare
| |||
1. | Corezcol [1] | Expectorant/10 ml 6 times/day | ✓ | ✓ | ||||||
2. | Hoopinil [1] | Cough/10 ml 6 times/day | ✓ | |||||||
3. | Asthimna [1] | Asthma/10 ml TID | ✓ | |||||||
4. | Expectum [1] | Expectorant/10 ml 6 times/day | ✓ | |||||||
5. | Joshabasadar [2] | Cough/10 ml OD | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |||
6. | Linkus [3] | Cough/10 ml TID | ✓ | ✓ | ||||||
7. | Shaafijoshanda [3] | Cough/1 sachet flu/BID | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |||||
8. | Sualin [2] | Cough, flu/1–2 tablets TID | ✓ | ✓ | ||||||
9. | Suduri [2] | Bronchitis/10 ml 6 times/day | ✓ | ✓ | ||||||
10. | Joharjoshanda [1] | Cough/1 sachet flu/BID | ✓ | ✓ | ||||||
11. | Tiryaq e nazla [2] | Cough, flu/6 gm OD | ✓ | ✓ | ||||||
12. | Infuza [2] | Asthma/10 ml OD | ||||||||
13. | Joshina [2] | Bronchitis/1 sachet BID | ✓ | ✓ | ||||||
14. | Sharbatsadar [1] | Bronchitis/10 ml TID | ✓ | |||||||
15. | Surfali [4] | Cough/10 ml TID | ✓ | |||||||
16. | Joshanda [2] | Cough and flu/1 sacet TID | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||||
17. | Sharbat e banafsha [1] | Cough/30 ml BID | ✓ |
Conservation status
Scientific name
| Family | Medicinal use | Conservation status | Population trend | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Abies pindrow Royle | Amaranthaceae | Cough, asthma | Least concern | Stable | [199] |
Acacia modesta Wall | Acanthaceae | Cough, asthma | Endangerd | Persistent | [38] |
Aconitum chasmanthum
| Ranunculaceae | Cough, and asthma | Critically endangered | Decreasing | [200] |
Aconitum violaceum
| Ranunculaceae | Asthma, cough | Vulnerable | Decreasing | [200] |
Alstonia scholaris
| Fabaceae | Asthma | Least concern | – | [201] |
Arisaema flavum
| Berberidaceae | Cough, cold | Rare | Increased | [38] |
Arisaema jacquemontii
| Asclepiadaceae | Asthma | Rare | Increased | [38] |
Artemisia scoparia
| Asteraceae | Cough chest problems | Rare | Increased | [38] |
Avena sativa
| Poaceae | Asthma | Infrequent | Decreasing | [202] |
Berberis lyceum
| Adiantaceae | Cough | Vulnerable | Increased | [82] |
Bergenia ciliate
| Apiaceae | Coughs and colds, asthma | Engangerd | Increased | [82] |
Bistorta amplexicaulis
| Polygonaceae | Flue. | Endangerd | Persistent | [82] |
Bunium persicum
| Apiaceae | Cold, cough | Rare | Increased | [82] |
Celtis australis L. | Ulmaceae | Cough | Engangerd | Persistent | [38] |
Cichorium intybus L. | Asteraceae | Asthma and breathing problems | Rare | Increased | [38] |
Cupressus sempervirens
| Asteraceae | Flu and cold | Least concern | Unknown | [203] |
Daucus carota
| Moraceae | Asthma, bronchitis | Infrequent | Decreasing | [204] |
Desmostachya bipinnata
| Nyctaginaceae | Asthma | Least concern | Unknown | [205] |
Ephedra gerardiana
| Ephedraceae | Asthma/breathing problem | Vulnerable | Increased | [82] |
Ephedra intermedia
| Rosaceae | Asthma and tuberculosis. | Least concern | Stable | [206] |
Ficus carica L. | Moraceae | Cough | Least concern | – | [207] |
Ficus elastic
| Moraceae | Cough, asthma | Rare | Increased | [38] |
Ficus palmata
| Myrtaceae | Expectorant | Rare | Increase | [38] |
Inula grantioides
| Asteraceae | Asthma | Rare | Increased | [38] |
Juglans regia
| Euphorbiaceae | Asthma | Near threatened | Decreasing | [207] |
Juniperus excelsa
| Cupressaceae | Chest infection | Least concern | Stable | [203] |
Lemna minor
| Convolvulaceae | Cold | Least concern | Unknown | [208] |
Mangifera indica
| Capparaceae | Asthma, cough | Infrequent | – | [201] |
Mentha longifolia
| Labiateae | Cough | Rare | Increased | [82] |
Mimosa pudica L. | Lamiaceae | Asthma | Least concern | Stable | [209] |
Morus alba L. | Solanaceae | Cough | Vulnerable | Persistent | [38] |
Morus nigra L. | Poaceae | Cough | Vulnerable | Persistent | [38] |
Olea ferruginea
| – | Cough, cold, flue | Endangerd | Persistent | [38] |
Opuntia dillenii
| Lythraceae | Asthma, whooping cough | Least concern | Stable | [210] |
Opuntia monacantha
| Caesalpinaceae | Bronchitis and asthma | Least concern | Stable | [211] |
Phyla nodiflora
| Verbenaceae | Cold | Least concern | Stable | [212] |
Pinus roxburghii
| Solanaceae | Coughs, cold | Least concern | Stable | [38] |
Pistacia integerrima
| Rosaceae | Cough, asthma | Vulnerable | Increased | [82] |
Plantago lanceolata
| Plantaginaceae | Cough and chest diseases | Rare | Increased | [82] |
Punica granatum
| Punicaceae | Cough | Least concern | – | [207] |
Pyrus communis L. | Rosaceae | Cough | Vulnerable | Persistent | [38] |
Rhynchosia minima
| Mimosaceae | Asthma | Least concern | Stable | [207] |
Rubus fruiticosus
| Violaceae | Whooping cough | Vulnerable | Persistent | [38] |
Salvia nubicola
| Labiateae | Cough, asthma | Vulnerable | Persistent | [38] |
Thymus linearis
| Labiateae | Cough, asthma | Rare | Increased | [82] |
Thymus serpyllum L. | Lamiaceae | Whooping cough, asthma | Vulnerable | Persistent | [38] |
Verbascum thapsus L. | Scrophulariaceae | Cough | Rare | Persistent | [38] |
Viola serpens
| Lamiaceae | Lung trouble | Vulnerable | Persistent | [38] |
Viola biflora L. | Pteridaceae | Cold and flu | Rare | Increased | [82] |
Viola canescens
| Violaceae | Cough | Rare | Increased | [82] |
Vitis vinifera L. | Rhamnaceae | Bronchitis | Least concern | – | [213] |
Commercially available important plants
Scientific name | Local name | Family | Part exported | Traditional use | Price/kg | Commercial status/exported to | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Acacia nilotica
| Kikar | Apocynaceae | Flowers | Asthma | 40 | Increased | [214] |
Achyranthes aspera Linn. | Puthkanda | Amaranthaceae | Rhizome/fruit | Pneumonia and asthma | – | Increased | [55] |
Aconitum chasmanthum
| Baroboma | Ranunculaceae | Roots | Cough, and asthma | 25 | Increased | [215] |
Aconitum heterophyllum
| Shaowboma | Ranunculaceae | Roots | Cough, asthma | 400 | Increased | |
Aconitum violaceum
| Bezhumolo | Ranunculaceae | Rhizome | Asthma, cough | 250 | Persistent | |
Adhatoda vasica
| Bansa | Capparidaceae | Leaves | Cough, bronchitis, asthma | 5 | Persistent | [215] |
Adiantum capillus-veneris
| Hansraal | Liliaceae | Whole plant | Coughs, bronchitis | 250 | Increased/Germany, Scotland, Iran and India | |
Adiantum incisum Forssk | Pershoofa | Liliaceae | Fronds | Cough and cold | – | Increased/Germany, Scotland, Iran and India | [55] |
Adiantum venustum
| Sumbal | Liliaceae | Whole plant | Cough | 5 | Increased | [82] |
Allium sativum
| Thoom | Euphorbiaceae | Bulbs/leaves | Respiratory tract infection | Increased | [55] | |
Ammi visnaga
| Chalveray | Amaranthaceae | Fruit | Bronchial asthma, breathing problems | 40 | Increased | [82] |
Artemisia vulgaris
| Baniru | Asclepiadaceae | Leaves/shoot, root | Asthma | 12 | Increased | |
Atropa acuminataroyle
| Lubbhar | Ranunculaceae | Whole plant | Cold, flu | 12 | Increased | [215] |
Berberis lyceum
| Kashmal | Papilionaceae | Wood roots | Cough | 25 | Increased | |
Bergenia ciliate
| Shaphus | Apiaceae | Leaves, rhizome, roots | Coughs and colds, asthma | 300 | Increased/China | [55] |
Bistorta amplexicaulis
| Saag | Polygonaceae | Rhizome | Flu | 300 | Persistent/Europe and India | |
Bunium persicum
| Zeera | Apiaceae | Fruit | Cold, cough | 1000 | Increased | |
Calotropis procera
| Akk | Asclepiadaceae | Roots, flowers | Cough | 1000 | Increased | [214] |
Cannabis sativa
| Bung | Cannabiaceae | Whole plant | Cough | 10 | Increased | [70] |
Capsicum annum
| Subzmirch | Asteraceae | Fruits | Bronchitis | – | Increased | [55] |
Carum carvi
| Sounjmik | Asteraceae | Seeds | Bronchitis, cough | 160–180 | Increased | [134] |
Carum copticum
| Ajwaindesi | Violaceae | Seed | Whooping, cough | 15 | Increased | [215] |
Cassia fistula
| Amaltas | Moraceae | Poods | Cough and flue | 15 | Increased | [215] |
Cicer arietinum
| Cholay | Myrtaceae | Fruit | Flu | 40 | Increased | [214] |
Cichorium intybus
| Qarali | Asteraceae | Leaves | Asthma and breathing problems | 13 | Increased | |
Citrullus colocynthis
| Bitter apple | Cucurbitaceae | Fruit | Bronchial asthma | 50 | Increased | |
Colchicum luteum
| Suranjaan-e-talkh | Colchicaceae | Coms | Bronchial diseases | 500 | Increased/Germany, South Africa, France and Bulgaria | |
Coriandrum sativum
| Dhaniya | Brassicaceae | Leaves/fruit | Respiratory tract infection | 25 | Increased | |
Diospyros lotus
| Amlok | Punicaceae | Fruits/leaves | Cough | 300 | Increased | [40] |
Ephedra gerardiana
| Soom | Ephedraceae | Fruit/leaves | Asthma/breathing problem | – | Increased | [55] |
Ephedra intermedia
| Somani | Ephedraceae | Bark/leaves | Asthma and tuberculosis | 8 | Increased | [82] |
Eucalyptus globulus
| Safaida | Moraceae | Bark/leaves | Flue | 110 | Increased | [214] |
Foeniculum vulgare
| Sonf | Papilionaceae | Leaves/seeds | Cough, pneumonia | 20 | Increased | |
Fumaria indica
| Pithpapadah | Fumariaceae | Shoot | Cough | – | Increased | [55] |
Hyoscyamus niger
| Khoobkalan | Zygophyllaceae | Seeds | Asthma, whooping cough | 20 | Increased | [215] |
Juglans regia
| Akhrot | Euphorbiaceae | Bark/fruit | Asthma | 30 | Increased | |
Mentha longifolia
| Jangli Podina | Labiateae | Whole plant | Cough | – | Increased | [55] |
Origanum vulgare
| Ganeyar | Violaceae | Root | Colds, flu, asthma | 7 | Increased | [82] |
Peganum harmala
| Harmal | Solanaceae | Seeds, leaves | Asthma | 50 | Increased | [214] |
Pistacia integerrima
| Kangar | Rosaceae | Leaves | Cough, asthma | – | Increased | [55] |
Plantago lanceolata
| Smanharswa | Plantaginaceae | Leaves/seeds | Cough and chest diseases | – | Increased | [55] |
Punica granatum
| Anar | Punicaceae | Fruit/bark/leaves | Cough | – | Increased | [55] |
Portulaca oleracea
| – | Asteraceae | Seeds/leaves | Asthma | – | Increased | [55] |
Rheum australe
| Chontal | Polygonaceae | Rhizome/leaves | Cough | 10 | Increased | |
Salvia moorcroftiana
| Gadakan | Malvaceae | Leaves/seeds | Cough | – | Increased | [55] |
Sisymbrium irio
| Khubkalan | Brassicaceae | Seeds | Cough | 50 | Increased | |
Skimmia laureola
| Nyra | Solanaceae | Leaves | Asthma | 12 | Increased | [82] |
Solanum surratense
| Kundiyara | Solanaceae | Fruits | Cough, asthma | – | Increased | [55] |
Tamarix dioica
| Rukh | Acanthaceae | Bark | Cough | 100 | Increased | [214] |
Thymus linearis
| Tumburu | Labiateae | Fruits | Cough, asthma | – | Increased | [55] |
Trachyspermum ammi
| Ajwain | Malvaceae | Fruits | Asthma and colds, cough | 550 | Increased | [40] |
Viola biflora
| Lilio | Pteridaceae | Flower | Cold and flu | 16 | Increased | |
Viola canescens
| Banafsha | Violaceae | Whole plant | Cough | 16 | Increased | [55] |
Viola serpens
| Banafsha | Violaceae | Flowers leave | Lung trouble | 100–240 | Increased/India, Germany and Scotland | |
Withania coagulans
| Akri | Meliaceae | Fruit | Cough, asthma | 5 | Increased | [215] |
Withania somnifera
| Asgand | Zingerberacee | Roots | Flu | 35 | Increased | |
Zizyphus nummularia
| – | Solanaceae | Fruit | Bronchitis | 30 | Increased | [214] |
Zizyphus sativa
| Mark Hany | Rhamnaceae | Fruit | Bronchitis | 30 | Increased |
Future recommendations
-
Government should distribute saplings each year among the villagers to plant them.
-
Media should be used to save nature and its importance.
-
Initiating afforestation projects and controlling over grazing.
-
Reducing biotic pressure by supplying gas and electricity.
-
Establishment of nurseries and botanical garden as well as local community awareness and involvement to protect these national assets will be the best conservation measure.
-
Commercial exploitation of medicinal plants should make sure to safeguard the intellectual property rights of local people.
-
Providing educational material in native languages to update collectors about occurrence of medicinal flora, their therapeutic significance, and market values.
-
It is important to identify valuable species, precisely map their distribution, document their status, study their life cycle, and formulates guidelines for their conservation and management.