Background
Truffles (
Tuber spp.) are hypogeous fungi belonging to the Pezizales (Ascomycota), a large group of symbiotic fungi growing with the roots (ectomycorrhiza) of several vascular plant species (angiosperms and gymnosperms). Some species of truffles, such as
Tuber magnatum Pico (white truffle) and
Tuber melanosporum Vittad. (black truffle), are the most valued and expensive due to their taste and aroma [
1]. On average, the worldwide prices of
T. magnatum range from €1200 to €4000 per kg depending on harvest [
2]. The high prices are due to distinctive features of the special truffle and its insufficient provision [
3]. This species is hard to grow on man-made plantations, so it is harvested mainly in natural stands [
4]. To date,
T. melanosporum,
T. brumale and
T. aestivum have been growing on plantations, yet in the case of
T. magnatum, there is still a lack of cultivation methodology [
5]. The natural distribution of
T. magnatum is limited to some locations in Italy [
2], Hungary [
6], Slovenia [
7] and Croatia [
8].
The other appreciated species of truffles,
T. melanosporum, is being cultivated worldwide [
9]. Truffle orchards have been established in the southern hemisphere, and truffles are present in the market year-round [
10]. Demand for black truffle (
T. melanosporum) has stimulated research on the species. Hence, the biology of the species at the genomic level [
11] is better understood than that of other truffle species. Soil and climate conditions conducive to
T. melanosporum development are well known [
12,
13]. However, in the last decade, a decreased yield of this species has been observed in Europe. Some authors combine this fact with climate warming (for instance, [
14‐
16]). The increasing attention towards the highly appreciated and commercialized hypogeous fungi has led to intensification of the research on truffles to better understand their life cycle [
1].
The first evidence for the culinary use of truffles by people inhabiting the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea comes from the Bronze era [
17]. Hypogeous Ascomycetes of the genus
Tirmania Chatin and
Terfezia Tul. & C. Tul., known as desert truffles, have nourished the tribes of the Sahara [
18]. Hypogeous fungi were known and eaten by ancient Babylonians, Etruscans, Egyptians, Greeks and Romans [
19,
20]. In ancient times, truffles were a great mystery to scientists and common people because it was unknown where truffles came from. For example, according to the Greek biographer Plutarch (46–120 A.D.), a truffle was a conglomeration produced by the action of lightning, warmth, and water on the soil. Dioscorides (40–90 A. D.), the Greek physician and pharmacologist, thought that the truffle was a tuberous root. Theophrateous, the Greek philosopher (c. 370–280 B. C.), described truffles as plants without root, stem, branch, bud, leaf, flower, or fruit and with neither bark, pith, fibres, nor veins [
21].
It is thought that the popularity of truffles during the Middle Ages was far less than that in ancient times [
22]. However, from the latter era come precious works that describe methods of searching for truffles, referred to by some authors as ‘hunting for truffles’ (fr.
chasse aux truffes, wł.
caccia al tartufo, ang.
truffle hunting) [
22,
23]. Hunting for truffles in Italy using pigs and dogs has been depicted by the papal historian Bartolomeo Platina and the painter Ambrogio Lorenzetti [
19].
At the beginning of the 18th century, truffles regained popularity and were included on menus by the French and Italians [
22]. During the first decade of the 18th century, French botanist and physician Joseph Pierre de Tournefort and the pharmacist and botanist Claude-Joseph Geoffroy made observations that helped us recognize the nature of truffles. Geoffrey helped settle the botanical confusion surrounding the truffle, and in a 1711 paper titled “Vegetation de la Truffe”, he classified it among fungi [
21]. Geoffroy’s observations were confirmed by Pier Antonio Micheli, the Italian botanist who provided the description of “seeds” (spores) in truffles. In his publication,
Nuova plantarum genera [
24], he noted that the spores developed inside sacks (asci). Over a hundred years later, Carlo Vittadini [
25] and the Tulasne brothers [
26] firmly established the scientific study of truffles. The latter researchers are considered the founders of modern mycology [
21,
27].
Cultivation of truffles began at the turn of 18th and 19th centuries in France and Italy [
28]. The first commonly used method of truffle orchard establishment is known as Talon’s technique. In 1808, Talon proposed the idea of transplanting some seedlings that he had collected at the foot of oak trees known to host truffles in their root system. His technique was the mainstay of the black truffle industry for more than 150 years, although he was not aware that the success of truffle fructification depended on the mycorrhiza. The phenomenon of mycorrhiza has been described by Franciszek Kamieński [
29] and Albert Benjamin Frank [
30] introduced the term
Mykorrhizen (from the Greek
myko - fungus,
rhiza - root) in 1885. Talon’s method of truffle orchard establishment was in use until the early 1970s, when French and Italian scientists developed the technique of nursery seedling inoculation. In 1973, the first seedlings inoculated with
T. melanosporum appeared on the market [
31].
Despite the technological progress since the 1980s, a decrease in productivity of the plantation is being observed [
20]. Some researchers attribute this decrease to changes in rural land forest use [
20] and others attribute it to changes in climate [
32]. The decreasing supply and rising prices of truffles have provided an enormous incentive for research on truffle cultivation. At present, truffle orchards are being established all over the world, including in non-traditional areas and countries, for example, the United States, New Zealand, and Australia [
13,
33].
In the mycological databases, such as Mycobank and Index Fungorum Mycobank, taxonomic details of more than 200 truffle species from all over the world are given, but only 70 species are fully verified [
34]. On the other hand, Bonito and co-authors [
35] reported at least 180 species of truffles. According to Ceruti [
36], 28 species of
Tuber are present in Europe. In 2012, another species of the genus was added,
Tuber cistophilum, and its identity was confirmed using molecular tools [
37].
In Poland, the presence of some species that are in great demand by the food market, such as
Tuber macrosporum Vittad.,
T. mesentericum Vittad.,
T. borchii Vittad. and
T. aestivum var.
uncinatum Chatin, has been confirmed [
38‐
40]. However, due to a “dark age” in Polish history (Soviet communist regime) knowledge about truffles and their occurrence has been lost for over half a century. Thankfully, research on these fungi and their use is currently undergoing a renaissance. Therefore, basing on historical data, the aim of this work is to:
-
show that truffles has been present in Polish culture for ages,
-
indicate the great potential of Poland in truffle collection and their culinary usage, as well as possibilities to grow the ultimate fungi.
Methods
To access to the maximum amount of data on truffle use in the past, detailed analysis was conducted using articles and books. International and national databases, such as the database of PhD theses, Google Scholar, and catalogues of the National Library of Poland, the Jagiellonian Digital Library, the University Library of J. Giedroyc in Bialystok and the Lower Silesian Digital Library (DBC) were checked. The overall search pattern covered not only the title, abstract and keywords but also the content concerning truffles or Tuber. No restrictions regarding the language of the publications consulted were imposed.
Each cited publication is indicated by letters (Table
1) depicting the content of a given publication: C – culinary and medicine use, methods of fruit bodies conservation; E – economical aspects, financial benefits from truffle hunting; L – belles-letters (poems, tales, songs, etc.); H – truffle hunting methods, dogs training; O – ecology, environmental conditions conducive to truffle occurrence; S – diversity of truffle species, truffle protection; T– truffle orchard establishment; X – others. Table
2 lists cookbooks and indicates the number of recipes with truffles.
Table 1
Truffles in Polish literature
The 2nd half of the 17th century | 1. | 1661 | Pasek | | | + | | | | | | |
2. | 1682 | Czerniecki | | | + | | | | | | |
| | | 2 | | | | | | |
The 1st half of the 18th century | 1. | 1719 | Hubert | | | | | + | + | | | |
| | | | | 1 | 1 | | | |
The 2nd half of the 18th century | 1. | 1780 | Borch | | + | | | + | + | + | | |
2. | 1778 | Kluk | | + | + | | | + | | | |
3. | 1783 | Wielądko | | | + | | | | | | |
4. | 1786 | Kluk | | | + | + | | | | | |
5. | 1799 | Jundziłł | | + | + | + | + | + | + | | |
| | 3 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 2 | | |
The 1st half of the 19th century | 1. | 1822 | Szczepański | | | + | | | | | | |
2. | 1823 | Bobiatyński | | + | | | + | | | | |
3. | 1828 | Bornholz | | + | + | + | + | + | + | | |
4. | 1829 | Bornholz | | + | + | + | + | + | + | | |
5. | 1830 | Bornholz | | + | + | + | + | + | + | | |
6. | 1830 | Gołębiowski | | | + | | | | | | |
7. | 1831 | Gołębiowski | | | | | + | | | | |
8. | 1835 | Zawadzki | | + | | | | | | | |
9. | 1838 | Dąbkiewicz | | | + | | | | | | |
10. | 1838 | Leśniewski | | | + | | | | | | |
11. | 1839 | Szytler | | + | + | + | + | + | | | |
12. | 1840 | Kitowicz | | | + | | | | | | |
13. | 1840 | Kraszewski | | | + | | | | | | |
14. | 1841 | Pisulewski | | + | | | | | | | |
15. | 1845 | Gerald-Wyżycki | | + | + | + | + | | | | |
16. | 1847 | Plater | | + | + | | + | | | | |
17. | 1849 | Czerwiakowski | | + | + | + | + | | | | |
| | 10 | 13 | 6 | 9 | 4 | 3 | | |
The 2nd half of the 19th century | 1. | 1853 | Wydrzyński | | + | | | + | + | | | |
2. | 1856 | Leśniewska | | | + | | | | | | |
3. | 1859 | Belke | | + | | | | | | | |
4. | 1859 | Lelewel | | | + | | | | | | |
5. | 1860 | Bill | | + | | + | | | | | |
6. | 1865 | Kurowski | | + | | | + | | | | |
7. | 1867 | Berdau | | + | + | + | + | | + | | |
8. | 1871 | Ćwierczakiewicz | | | + | | | | | | |
9. | 1888 | Błoński | | + | | + | + | + | + | | |
10. | 1889 | Biełozierska | | | + | | | | | | |
11. | 1892 | Rewiński | | | | | + | | | | |
12. | 1894 | Aleksandrowicz, Błoński | | + | | + | | | | | |
13. | 1895 | Gawarecki | | | | | | | + | | |
14. | 1897 | Spausta | | + | | + | + | + | + | | |
| | 8 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 3 | 4 | | |
The 1st half of the 20th century | 1. | 1900 | Schnaider | | | + | | | | | | |
2. | 1901 | Doleżan | | + | + | + | + | + | | | |
3. | 1903 | Norkowska | | | + | | | | | | |
4. | 1905 | Chełkowski | | + | + | + | | + | | | |
5. | 1905 | Niewiarowska | | | + | | | | | | |
6. | 1910 | Hildt | | + | | | | | | | |
7. | 1910 | Ochorowicz-Monatowa | | | + | | | | | | |
8. | 1911 | Kurcyusz | | + | | | | | | | |
9. | 1914 | Owoczyńska | | | + | | | | | | |
10. | 1917 | Teodorowicz | | + | + | | | | + | | |
11. | 1923 | Blei | | | | | | | | + | |
12. | 1928 | Swoboda | | | + | | | | | | |
13. | 1932 | Kobylański | | + | + | + | + | | + | | |
14. | 1932 | Śleżańska | | | + | | | | | | |
15. | 1933 | Szulczewski | | | + | | | + | | | |
16. | 1938 | Orłoś | | + | + | | + | + | | | |
17. | 1947 | Orłoś | | + | | + | + | | | | |
18. | 1948 | Dąbrowska | | | + | | | | | + | |
| | 8 | 15 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 2 | 2 | |
The 2nd half of the 20th century | 1. | 1950 | Biegańska-Hornowska | | | + | | + | + | | | |
2. | 1953 | Lubelska | | + | | + | | | | | |
3. | 1953 | Orłoś | | | | + | | | | | |
4. | 1958 | Brzechwa | | | | | | | | + | |
5. | 1970 | Lemnis, Vitry | | | + | | | | | | |
6. | 1970 | Ihnatowicz | | | + | | | | | | |
7. | 1975 | Kuchowicz | | | + | | | | | | |
8. | 1986 | Ścisłowski | | | | | | | | + | |
9. | 1988 | Grzywacz | | | | + | | | | | |
10. | 1988 | Ławrynowicz | | + | | + | + | | | | |
11. | 1991 | Kowecka | | | | | + | | | | |
12. | 1999 | Ławrynowicz | | + | | + | | | | | |
| | 3 | 4 | 5 | 3 | 1 | | 2 | |
The 1st half of the 21st century | 1. | 2008 | Hilszczańska et al. | | + | | + | | | | | |
2. | 2008 | Ławrynowicz et al. | | + | | + | | | | | |
3. | 2009 | Hilszczańska | | + | | + | | + | | | |
4. | 2009 | Ławrynowicz | | + | | + | | | | | |
5. | 2013 | Gajos, Hilszczańska | | + | + | | | | | | + |
6. | 2013 | Hilszczańska et al. | | + | | + | | | | | |
7. | 2014 | Gajos et al. | | | + | | | | | | |
8. | 2014 | Hilszczańska et al. | | + | | + | | | | | |
9. | 2014 | Łuczaj, Köhler | | | | + | | | | | + |
10. | 2014 | Rosa-Gruszecka et al. | | + | | + | | | | | |
11. | 2015 | Hilszczańska | | + | | + | | | + | | |
12. | 2015 | Jankiewicz et al. | | + | | | | | | | |
13. | 2016 | Byk et al. | | + | | | | | | | |
14. | 2016 | Hilszczańska et al. | | + | | + | | | + | | |
15. | 2016 | Hilszczańska | | + | + | + | + | + | + | | |
16. | 2017 | Rosa-Gruszecka et al. | | + | | | | + | | | |
| | 14 | 3 | 11 | 1 | 3 | 3 | | 2 |
Total: | 85 publications | | 46 | 45 | 33 | 26 | 19 | 14 | 4 | 2 |
Table 2
Truffles in Polish cookbooks
1. | 17th | 1682 | Czerniecki | | 2 |
2. | 18th | 1783 | Wielądko | | 14 |
3. | 19th | 1822 | Szczepański | | 3 |
4. | | 1838 | Dąbkiewicz | | 1 |
5. | | 1838 | Leśniewski | | 3 |
6. | | 1856 | Leśniewska | | 9 |
7. | | 1871 | Ćwierczakiewicz | | 7 |
8. | | 1889 | Biełozierska | | 1 |
9. | 20th (before the Second World War) | 1903 | Norkowska | | 41 |
10. | | 1905 | Niewiarowska | | 2 |
11. | | 1910 | Ochorowicz-Monatowa | | 18 |
12. | | 1914 | Owoczyńska | | 14 |
13. | | 1928 | Swoboda | | 4 |
14. | | 1932 | Śleżańska | | 3 |
15. | 20th (after the Second World War) | 1968 | Berger et al. | | 0 |
16. | | 1983 | Zawistowska, Krzyżanowska | | 0 |
17. | | 1987 | Czerni | | 0 |
18. | | 1989 | Bytnerowiczowa | | 0 |
19. | | 1991 | Górska | | 0 |
20. | 21st | 2013 | Brodnicki, Okrasa | | 0 |
Conclusions and future perspectives
Tracing the historical data on truffles indicates that truffles have been present in Polish culture for centuries. The fungi were valued and initially served at the royal court and aristocrats’ tables, such as those of Radziwiłłs, Branickis, and Lubomirskis. Gradually, the culinary use of truffles went into broader society levels, and hunting for truffles, together with traditional hunting, became popular. To train dogs for truffle finding, professionals were employed. Disappearance of truffles as a well-known delicacy after the Second World War was due to some factors of a socio-economic nature:
1.
Changes in forest cover. After the Second World War, forests comprised only 20.8% of Polish territory. Unfavourable conditions for fruiting truffles included changes in species composition, age structure of stands and changes of forest management. For example, undergrowth shading the forest floor was more common due to the cessation of grazing in forests.
2.
Changes in the structure of forest ownership and use. The disappearance of traditional types of forest use, such as cattle grazing and collection of brushwood.
3.
Changes at the society level due to war and the great loss of Polish citizens, especially the loss of Polish aristocracy and intelligentsia, including foresters, or social groups with the most knowledge and practice regarding collection, use and cultivation of truffles; emigration and migration of population from rural to urban areas.
4.
The communist regime promoted “pork chop and carp” as the food for the ‘working class’ rather than the traditional delicacies of Polish cuisine. Truffles as a luxury product for the nobility were not welcomed by new authorities.
In Poland, research on the factors determining truffles’ cultivation is still in the pioneering stage [
100]. Truffles in Poland are considered as rare fungi and many species remain undiscovered. Some of them,
Tuber aestivum, for example, have the status of extinct and missing species on the Polish Red List of Plants and Fungi [
104]. The area of soils which are conducive to truffle’ development is rather small. According to Krasowicz et al. [
105] rendzinas and pararendzinas are only 1.1% of all type of soils. Moreover, a great part of the soil is used for agricultural purposes, and only a small portion is covered with forests. For instance, around the Forest District in Pińczów (Nida Basin), the location where research on truffles has been occurring since 2007 [
97,
100], forest cover is only 10%. The share of stands on rendzic soil is only 7% of the forest area [
106] (Plan Urządzenia Gospodarstwa Leśnego Nadleśnictwa Pińczów na lata 2013─2022).
Although it seems that scarcity of soils conducive to truffle growth could be a serious obstacle to promote and establish truffle orchards in Poland, the results of our pioneering work brings hope. We have obtained fruit bodies of
T. aestivum after 8 years in truffle orchards established in eastern Poland [
102]. Two other orchards are cared for by the Forest Research Institute, and new orchards are established every year by individual entrepreneurs. Currently, the priority in our work is to bring the truffles back to Polish society and to achieve in situ protection of
Tuber fungi [
97,
100,
107].