Background
Methods
Data and study sample
Measures
Indicator variables
Explanatory variables
Outcome variables
Adjusting variables
Statistical analysis and construction of variables
Dimensions/indicators (categories) | Men | Women | Total | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Score | N1)
| %2)
| N1)
| %2)
| N1)
| %2)
| |
Time-based WLC | |||||||
0 | 367 | 19.2 | 605 | 28.0 | 972 | 23.3 | |
How strongly does your work interfere
| 1-3 | 520 | 23.6 | 564 | 24.3 | 1084 | 23.9 |
with your private life and family
| 4-6 | 715 | 33.4 | 692 | 29.8 | 1407 | 31.7 |
obligations more than you would like?
| 7-10 | 481 | 23.8 | 411 | 17.9 | 892 | 21.0 |
Strain-based WLC | |||||||
0 | 560 | 28.9 | 755 | 35.0 | 1315 | 31.8 | |
How difficult do you find it to
| 1-3 | 688 | 31.7 | 631 | 27.1 | 1319 | 29.5 |
disconnect from work when the
| 4-6 | 532 | 25.2 | 572 | 24.6 | 1104 | 24.9 |
work day is over?
| 7-10 | 301 | 14.3 | 317 | 13.4 | 618 | 13.9 |
Level/degree of combined time- and | |||||||
strain-based WLC | |||||||
Inexistent | 0 | 213 | 11.2 | 362 | 17.0 | 575 | 13.9 |
Very low | 1-4 | 396 | 18.3 | 491 | 21.7 | 887 | 19.9 |
Low | 5-8 | 675 | 32.1 | 674 | 29.4 | 1349 | 30.9 |
Moderate | 9-12 | 510 | 24.5 | 476 | 20.9 | 986 | 22.8 |
High | 13-16 | 256 | 12.6 | 222 | 9.3 | 478 | 11.0 |
Very high | 17-20 | 29 | 1.3 | 43 | 1.7 | 72 | 1.5 |
Results
Prevalence of (very) high WLC in different subpopulations
Men | Women | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
%1)
| p-value | %1)
| p-value | |
Total study population
|
13.9
|
11.0
| ||
Demographics
| ||||
Age | ||||
20-29 years | 8.8 | < .001 | 12.4 | ≤ .05 |
30-39 years | 15.3 | 10.7 | ||
40-49 years | 16.7 | 10.8 | ||
50-64 years | 12.8 | 10.4 | ||
Education (highest level of education achieved) | ||||
(Incomplete) compulsory schooling | 12.1 | <. 001 | 8.5 | <. 001 |
Apprenticeship, general training | 10.7 | 9.1 | ||
Secondary (vocational, technical, matura) | 16.8 | 11.5 | ||
University | 17.0 | 17.1 | ||
Work life characteristics
| ||||
Management position (high job status) | ||||
yes | 18.9 | < .001 | 20.2 | < .001 |
no | 10.1 | 8.5 | ||
Work hours (hours of paid work per week) | ||||
< 20 hours (part-time job) | 2.7 | < .001 | 5.4 | < .001 |
20-39 hours (part-time job) | 14.5 | 11.6 | ||
≥ 40 hours (full-time job) | 14.3 | 15.1 | ||
Variable work schedule | ||||
yes | 15.4 | < .001 | 12.7 | < .001 |
no | 11.9 | 9.2 | ||
Regular overtime | ||||
yes | 17.3 | < .001 | 15.7 | < .001 |
no | 8.8 | 8.3 | ||
Commuting time (one-way) | ||||
up to 30 minutes | 13.0 | < .001 | 10.6 | < .001 |
31-60 minutes | 12.5 | 11.2 | ||
more than 60 minutes | 18.2 | 14.0 | ||
Participation in decision-making (autonomy at work) | ||||
yes | 16.0 | < .001 | 12.1 | < .01 |
no | 8.7 | 9.4 | ||
Job security | ||||
Very/quite secure job | 13.0 | < .001 | 10.3 | ≤ .05 |
A bit/very insecure job | 19.7 | 15.2 | ||
Private life characteristics
| ||||
Living with dependent children | ||||
yes | 17.4 | < .001 | 10.5 | > .05 |
no | 11.4 | 11.2 | ||
Having a long-term relationship | ||||
yes | 14.6 | < .01 | 10.9 | > .05 |
no | 9.9 | 11.2 | ||
Housework/housekeeping (hours per week) | ||||
≤ 5 hours per week | 15.6 | ≤ .05 | 10.8 | < .001 |
6-20 hours per week | 11.1 | 12.5 | ||
> 20 hours per week | 10.3 | 8.2 | ||
Number of cases2)
| 2079 | 2268 |
Associations between work- and nonwork -related factors and WLC
Dependent variable: | Men | Women | Total |
---|---|---|---|
Work-life conflict (0-20) | |||
β
|
β
|
β
| |
Independent variables: | |||
Management position (dummy) | .11*** | .09*** | .11*** |
Work hours (per week) | .06** | .28*** | .21*** |
Variable work schedule (dummy) | .12*** | .09*** | .10*** |
Regular overtime (dummy) | .14*** | .08*** | .11*** |
Commuting time (minutes per day each way) | .08*** | .06* | .07*** |
Participation in decision-making (dummy) | n.s. | n.s. | n.s. |
Job insecurity (dummy) | .08*** | .07*** | .08*** |
Living with dependent children (dummy) | .09*** | .08** | .07*** |
Not being in a long-term relationship (dummy) | n.s. | n.s. | n.s. |
Housework/housekeeping (hours per week) | n.s. | n.s. | n.s. |
Control variables: | |||
Sex (female) | - | - | .11*** |
Age | n.s. | n.s. | n.s. |
Education (highest level achieved) | .07** | .10*** | .09*** |
Adjusted R-Squared | .111 | .135 | .126 |
Number of cases in model | 1863 | 1920 | 3784 |
Physical and mental health correlates of WLC
Fair to very poor self-rated health | Suffer a lot from backache or lower back pain | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Men (6.9%) | Women (10.6%) | Men (8.6%) | Women (14.2%) | |||||
OR | 95%-CI | OR | 95%-CI | OR | 95%-CI | OR | 95%-CI | |
Model 1
†
| n = 2079 | n = 2268 | n = 2078 | n = 2268 | ||||
Work-life conflict | ||||||||
very low (0-4) | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
low (5-8) | 1.24 | 0.78-1.95 | 0.99 | 0.69-1.44 | 0.67 | 0.44-1.00 | 1.00 | 0.73-1.37 |
moderate (9-12) | 1.09 | 0.66-1.81 |
1.86
| 1.31-2.66 | 0.71 | 0.46-1.09 | 1.26 | 0.90-1.75 |
(very) high (13-20) | 1.77 | 1.05-3.00 | 1.27 | 0.80-2.02 | 1.23 | 0.78-1.93 | 1.54 | 1.05-2.26 |
Model 2
††
| n = 2034 | n = 2180 | n = 2033 | n = 2180 | ||||
Work-life conflict | ||||||||
very low (0-4) | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
low (5-8) | 1.57 | 0.96-2.55 | 1.12 | 0.76-1.64 | 0.75 | 0.50-1.14 | 1.05 | 0.76-1.46 |
moderate (9-12) | 1.58 | 0.93-2.70 |
2.15
| 1.47-3.14 | 0.87 | 0.56-1.36 | 1.40 | 0.99-1.99 |
(very) high (13-20) |
2.67
| 1.50-4.76 | 1.49 | 0.90-2.47 | 1.66 | 1.03-2.67 | 1.78 | 1.17-2.69 |
Suffer a lot from headaches or facial pain
|
Sick leave/long-term absence from work
| |||||||
Men
(4.5%)
|
Women
(13.1%)
|
Men
(7.9%)
|
Women
(8.9%)
| |||||
OR
|
95%-CI
|
OR
|
95%-CI
|
OR
|
95%-CI
|
OR
|
95%-CI
| |
Model 1
†
| n = 2079 | n = 2267 | n = 2073 | n = 2248 | ||||
Work-life conflict | ||||||||
very low (0-4) | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
low (5-8) | 1.51 | 0.82-2.78 | 1.28 | 0.91-1.80 | 0.77 | 0.52-1.15 | 0.96 | 0.65-1.40 |
moderate (9-12) | 1.64 | 0.87-3.11 |
1.90
| 1.35-2.69 | 0.69 | 0.45-1.08 | 1.19 | 0.79-1.77 |
(very) high (13-20) |
2.77
| 1.44-5.36 |
2.31
| 1.56-3.44 | 0.57 | 0.32-1.02 | 1.37 | 0.85-2.19 |
Model 2
††
| n = 2034 | n = 2179 | n = 2028 | n = 2160 | ||||
Work-life conflict | ||||||||
very low (0-4) | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
low (5-8) | 1.70 | 0.90-3.21 | 1.25 | 0.87-1.79 | 0.95 | 0.63-1.43 | 1.03 | 0.69-1.55 |
moderate (9-12) | 1.94 | 0.99-3.77 |
1.89
| 1.31-2.74 | 0.92 | 0.58-1.46 | 1.32 | 0.86-2.03 |
(very) high (13-20) |
3.20
| 1.58-6.48 |
2.48
| 1.62-3.81 | 0.79 | 0.44-1.44 | 1.52 | 0.91-2.54 |
Have seldom or never plenty of strength, energy and optimism (0-4) | Have often or always negative emotions and depression (6-10) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Men (4.8%) | Women (5.6%) | Men (4.4%) | Women (8.3%) | |||||
OR | 95%-CI | OR | 95%-CI | OR | 95%-CI | OR | 95%-CI | |
Model 1
†
| n = 2075 | n = 2262 | n = 2078 | n = 2266 | ||||
Work-life conflict | ||||||||
very low (0-4) | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
low (5-8) | 0.83 | 0.47-1.45 | 1.56 | 0.95-2.55 | 0.94 | 0.51-1.73 | 1.32 | 0.84-2.06 |
moderate (9-12) | 1.06 | 0.60-1.88 | 1.91 | 1.14-3.20 | 1.33 | 0.73-2.42 |
2.71
| 1.77-4.13 |
(very) high (13-20) | 1.33 | 0.70-2.52 | 1.77 | 0.95-3.30 | 2.23 | 1.20-4.15 |
3.19
| 1.99-5.12 |
Model 2
††
| n = 2030 | n = 2174 | n = 2033 | n = 2178 | ||||
Work-life conflict | ||||||||
very low (0-4) | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
low (5-8) | 0.94 | 0.52-1.69 | 1.56 | 0.92-2.63 | 1.11 | 0.60-2.06 | 1.47 | 0.92-2.34 |
moderate (9-12) | 1.28 | 0.71-2.32 | 2.01 | 1.16-3.47 | 1.66 | 0.89-3.08 |
3.12
| 1.99-4.88 |
(very) high (13-20) | 1.84 | 0.94-3.60 | 1.82 | 0.93-3.53 |
3.16
| 1.63-6.11 |
3.84
| 2.30-6.42 |
Have a lot of difficulty in sleeping or insomnia
|
Suffer a lot from general weakness, weariness, lack of energy
| |||||||
Men
(4.1%)
|
Women
(9.7%)
|
Men
(4.5%)
|
Women
(13.5%)
| |||||
OR
|
95%-CI
|
OR
|
95%-CI
|
OR
|
95%-CI
|
OR
|
95%-CI
| |
Model 1
†
| n = 2079 | n = 2268 | n = 2078 | n = 2266 | ||||
Work-life conflict | ||||||||
very low (0-4) | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
low (5-8) | 1.05 | 0.56-2.00 | 1.59 | 1.06-2.38 | 1.45 | 0.81-2.60 | 1.32 | 0.93-1.87 |
moderate (9-12) | 1.41 | 0.74-2.68 |
1.97
| 1.29-2.99 | 1.80 | 1.00-3.27 |
2.41
| 1.71-3.39 |
(very) high (13-20) |
3.16
| 1.69-5.89 |
3.59
| 2.32-5.55 | 2.34 | 1.23-4.46 |
3.67
| 2.52-5.34 |
Model 2
††
| n = 2034 | n = 2180 | n = 2033 | n = 2178 | ||||
Work-life conflict | ||||||||
very low (0-4) | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
low (5-8) | 1.21 | 0.63-2.31 |
1.87
| 1.23-2.85 | 1.80 | 0.98-3.30 | 1.39 | 0.96-2.01 |
moderate (9-12) | 1.74 | 0.90-3.35 |
2.39
| 1.53-3.73 | 2.23 | 1.19-4.17 |
2.57
| 1.78-3.70 |
(very) high (13-20) |
4.14
| 2.14-8.01 |
4.67
| 2.90-7.53 |
3.38
| 1.70-6.70 |
3.77
| 2.50-5.69 |