Background
Methods
Study population
Measures
Dependent variable
Independent variable
Covariates
Statistical analysis
Results
Description of sample
Variable | Men (N = 13,417) | Women (N = 13,745) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Depressed Sample (Weighted %) | Total Sample (Unweighted n) | χ2 (df), p-value | Depressed Sample (Weighted %) | Total Sample (Unweighted n) | χ2 (df),p-value | |
Demographic, Social, and Economic Factors | ||||||
Immigration status | ||||||
Native-born Canadian | 12.6% | 10,841 | 2.74 (2), .255 | 17.1% | 11,582 | 31.8 (2), <.001 |
Immigrant < 20 years | 14.5% | 301 | 28.9% | 214 | ||
Immigrant ≥20 years | 11.8% | 2275 | 18.8% | 1949 | ||
Age | ||||||
45–55 years | 13.7% | 3382 | 25.8 (3), <.001 | 17.4% | 3615 | 7.22 (3), .065 |
56–65 years | 12.8% | 4349 | 17.4% | 4662 | ||
66–75 years | 9.9% | 3326 | 16.7% | 3259 | ||
76–85 years | 10.6% | 2360 | 19.9% | 2209 | ||
Income | ||||||
< $20,000 | 38.0% | 462 | 446.4 (5), <.001 | 36.7% | 838 | 399.6 (5), <.001 |
$20,000–$49,999 | 18.5% | 2268 | 23.5% | 3339 | ||
$50,000–$99,999 | 13.0% | 4604 | 16.7% | 4427 | ||
$100,000–$149,999 | 9.9% | 2865 | 12.3% | 2242 | ||
≥ $150,000 | 6.6% | 2610 | 10.1% | 1865 | ||
Not answered | 18.1% | 608 | 23.1% | 1034 | ||
Relationship status | ||||||
Single | 24.8% | 1056 | 295.4 (2), <.001 | 24.3% | 1263 | 108.2 (2), <.001 |
Married/live with a partner/common-law | 10.3% | 10,510 | 15.4% | 8349 | ||
Widowed/divorced/separated | 21.4% | 1851 | 22.1% | 4133 | ||
Education level | ||||||
< secondary school | 20.8% | 642 | 77.4 (3), <.001 | 27.7% | 811 | 65.7 (3), <.001 |
High school graduate &/or some post-secondary | 16.7% | 2087 | 19.2% | 2466 | ||
Post-secondary degree/diploma | 11.4% | 10,663 | 16.5% | 10,452 | ||
Not answered | 17.6% | 25 | 15.8% | 16 | ||
Physical Health | ||||||
Morbidities | ||||||
No health conditions | 6.4% | 2702 | 527.4 (3), <.001 | 8.1% | 2163 | 586.0 (3), <.001 |
1 health condition | 8.7% | 3783 | 10.7% | 3344 | ||
2 health conditions | 11.8% | 3121 | 17.6% | 3128 | ||
3 health conditions | 23.4% | 3811 | 27.7% | 5110 | ||
Hypertension levels | ||||||
Normal | 11.9% | 4008 | 9.60 (4), .048 | 15.1% | 5869 | 67.4 (4), <.001 |
Elevated | 10.5% | 1144 | 17.6% | 1441 | ||
Stage 1 hypertension | 13.4% | 2515 | 20.4% | 1823 | ||
Stage 2 hypertension | 13.5% | 1593 | 18.7% | 1283 | ||
Taking anti-hypertensive | 12.8% | 4157 | 21.4% | 3329 | ||
Chronic pain | ||||||
No pain | 9.8% | 10,651 | 376.1 (2), <.001 | 13.6% | 9918 | 416.4 (2), <.001 |
Pain | 24.4% | 2175 | 29.1% | 3206 | ||
Refused | 20.8% | 591 | 25.9% | 621 | ||
Health Behaviors | ||||||
Smoking lifetime | ||||||
≥ 100 cigarettes | 14.6% | 7614 | 61.3 (1), <.001 | 18.8% | 6870 | 14.4 (1), <.001 |
< 100 cigarettes | 10.1% | 5803 | 16.4% | 6875 | ||
Binge drinking | ||||||
No binge drinking | 13.1% | 8076 | 15.5 (2), <.001 | 18.5% | 9476 | 15.0 (2), .001 |
Regular binge drinking | 13.1% | 2562 | 16.6% | 1744 | ||
Occasional binge drinking | 10.5% | 2779 | 15.5% | 2525 | ||
Physical activity | ||||||
Never or seldom | 12.3% | 11,588 | 28.8 (2), <.001 | 17.6% | 11,676 | 33.9 (2), <.001 |
Sometimes or often | 11.4% | 1274 | 14.4% | 1501 | ||
No answer or refused | 20.3% | 555 | 25.9% | 568 | ||
Nutrition Status Indicators | ||||||
BMI | ||||||
Underweight: < 18.5 | 33.3% | 48 | 47.4 (3), <.001 | 24.1% | 144 | 75.7 (3), <.001 |
Healthy: ≥ 18.5 - < 25 | 11.3% | 3229 | 14.8% | 4848 | ||
Overweight: ≥ 25- < 30 | 11.5% | 6176 | 17.2% | 4804 | ||
Obese: ≥ 30 | 14.9% | 3964 | 21.8% | 3949 | ||
Waist-to-hip ratio | ||||||
Low risk | 10.7% | 1313 | 4.48 (1), .034 | 16.1% | 7951 | 32.6 (1), <.001 |
High risk | 12.7% | 12,104 | 19.9% | 5794 | ||
Waist-to-height ratio | ||||||
Below cut-off | 11.2% | 8446 | 34.9 (1), <.001 | 15.6% | 9685 | 91.7 (1), <.001 |
Above cut-off | 14.7% | 4971 | 22.6% | 4060 | ||
Body fat percent | ||||||
0–26% | 10.5% | 4671 | 73.1 (4), <.001 | 15.4% | 313 | 82.0 (4), <.001 |
26–31% | 12.3% | 4482 | 13.7% | 944 | ||
31–36% | 14.2% | 3032 | 14.1% | 2443 | ||
36–41% | 19.6% | 961 | 16.7% | 4271 | ||
41–59% | 18.8% | 271 | 21.1% | 5774 | ||
Disease risk | ||||||
Least risk | 11.6% | 3235 | 44.5 (3), <.001 | 14.8% | 4729 | 76.5 (3), <.001 |
Increased | 11.0% | 4438 | 17.1% | 2690 | ||
High | 12.4% | 2139 | 17.8% | 2541 | ||
Very high | 15.7% | 3605 | 22.1% | 3785 | ||
Grip strength | ||||||
No under-nutrition | 11.1% | 10,111 | 96.3 (2), <.001 | 16.2% | 10,713 | 81.8 (2), <.001 |
Under-nutrition | 17.1% | 2654 | 24.1% | 1843 | ||
Not assessed | 20.2% | 652 | 23.4% | 1189 | ||
Nutritional risk | ||||||
Low risk | 7.7% | 8452 | 524.5 (2), <.001 | 11.2% | 8312 | 649.8 (2), <.001 |
High risk | 21.7% | 4269 | 28.7% | 4751 | ||
Not assessed | 18.6% | 696 | 25.3% | 682 | ||
Skeletal Muscle Index (SMI) | ||||||
No sarcopenia | 18.0% | 2135 | 57.4 (1), <.001 | 17.6% | 13,739 | 0.14 (1), .706 |
Sarcopenia | 11.7% | 11,282 | 12.5% | 6 | ||
T-scores | ||||||
Normal | 12.4% | 12,421 | 1.58 (2), .454 | 17.2% | 8589 | 3.66 (2), .161 |
Osteopenia | 12.9% | 63 | 19.3% | 1154 | ||
Osteoporosis | 14.1% | 933 | 18.2% | 4002 | ||
Screen for anemia | ||||||
Negative | 12.0% | 10,448 | 15.6 (2), <.001 | 17.4% | 11,316 | 2.30 (2), .317 |
Positive | 16.5% | 1049 | 23.0% | 96 | ||
No consent for sample | 13.5% | 1920 | 18.2% | 2333 | ||
Dietary Intakes | ||||||
Average daily intakes of fiber sources | ||||||
0 to < 1 | 13.2% | 4151 | 6.48 (3), .091 | 19.2% | 4625 | 21.8 (3), <.001 |
≥ 1 to < 2 | 12.2% | 6334 | 16.0% | 6507 | ||
≥ 2 to < 3 | 11.5% | 2305 | 18.2% | 2134 | ||
≥ 3 | 14.5% | 627 | 19.9% | 479 | ||
Average daily intakes of pulses and nuts | ||||||
0 to < 0.5 | 14.6% | 4293 | 27.9 (3), <.001 | 19.7% | 4468 | 20.56 (3), <.001 |
≥ 0.5 to < 1 | 12.1% | 3262 | 16.6% | 3004 | ||
≥ 1 to < 2 | 11.0% | 4986 | 16.8% | 5354 | ||
≥ 2 | 12.6% | 876 | 15.5% | 919 | ||
Average daily intakes of fat sources | ||||||
0 to < 2.5 | 14.9% | 1649 | 18.1 (3), <.001 | 19.0% | 1715 | 4.87 (3), .182 |
≥ 2.5 to < 4 | 12.3% | 5127 | 17.3% | 5128 | ||
≥ 4 to < 5 | 10.9% | 3232 | 16.7% | 3398 | ||
≥ 5 | 13.2% | 3409 | 18.1% | 3504 | ||
Intakes of fish | ||||||
No consumption | 21.0% | 1121 | 82.9 (1), <.001 | 22.1% | 1150 | 17.3 (1), <.001 |
Consumes fish | 11.7% | 12,296 | 17.2% | 12,595 | ||
Intakes of omega-3 eggs | ||||||
No consumption | 12.8% | 10,099 | 3.18 (1), .075 | 18.2% | 9959 | 9.61 (1), .002 |
Consumes omega-3 eggs | 11.7% | 3318 | 16.0% | 3786 | ||
Average daily intakes of fruits and vegetables | ||||||
0 to < 2 | 18.3% | 2631 | 119.0 (4), <.001 | 29.6% | 1284 | 150.4 (4), <.001 |
≥ 2 to < 3 | 13.0% | 3787 | 19.8% | 2723 | ||
≥ 3 to < 4 | 10.1% | 3387 | 17.5% | 3381 | ||
≥ 4 to < 6 | 9.6% | 2865 | 15.1% | 4499 | ||
≥ 6 | 13.1% | 747 | 14.4% | 1858 | ||
Average daily intakes of pure fruit juice | ||||||
No consumption | 12.8% | 3430 | 0.63 (2), .730 | 17.5% | 5334 | 12.6 (2), .002 |
≤ 1 per day | 12.4% | 9613 | 17.4% | 8214 | ||
> 1 per day | 13.4% | 374 | 27.4% | 197 | ||
Average daily intakes of salty snacks | ||||||
No consumption | 12.7% | 2385 | 4.13 (2), .127 | 16.9% | 2742 | 0.97 (2), .615 |
> 0 to ≤1 | 12.4% | 11,004 | 17.7% | 10,973 | ||
> 1 to ≤10 | 25.0% | 28 | 20.7% | 30 | ||
Average daily intakes of calcium sources with high vitamin D content | ||||||
> 0 to < 1 | 13.6% | 3007 | 19.4 (3), <.001 | 18.7% | 3027 | 6.12 (3), .106 |
≥ 1 to < 2 | 11.4% | 6227 | 17.4% | 6084 | ||
≥ 2 to < 4 | 13.1% | 3717 | 16.7% | 4130 | ||
≥ 4 | 16.8% | 466 | 19.5% | 504 | ||
Average daily intakes of calcium sources with low vitamin D content | ||||||
No consumption | 15.2% | 3343 | 26.0 (1), <.001 | 21.5% | 1625 | 17.8 (1), <.001 |
> 0 | 11.7% | 10,074 | 17.1% | 12,120 | ||
Average daily intakes of pastries | ||||||
No consumption | 14.1% | 1190 | 3.16 (2), .206 | 18.0% | 1565 | 7.75 (2), .021 |
> 0 to ≤1 | 12.4% | 11,983 | 17.4% | 11,958 | ||
> 1 to ≤13 | 11.1% | 244 | 24.6% | 222 | ||
Average weekly intakes of chocolate bars | ||||||
No consumption | 11.9% | 4542 | 30.4 (2), <.001 | 15.8% | 4858 | 38.4 (2), <.001 |
> 0 to ≤0.6 | 12.4% | 8361 | 18.0% | 8177 | ||
> 0.6 | 20.4% | 514 | 25.1% | 710 |
Bivariate and multivariable analysis
Objective 1. Is immigrant status associated with depression among Canadian women and/or Canadian men aged 45 to 85?
Objective 2. To what extent does adjustment for a wide range of demographic, social, economic, and health-related characteristics attenuate the association between immigrant status and depression?
Objective 3. Is there an association between dietary intakes and depression after controlling for immigration status?
Variable (reference category) | Men | Women | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
aOR (95% CI) |
p-value
| aOR (95% CI) |
p-value
| |
Demographic, Social, and Economic Characteristics | ||||
Immigration status (Native-born Canadian) | ||||
Immigrant < 20 years | 1.22 (0.91, 1.64) | 0.18 | 2.54 (1.93, 3.35) | < 0.001 |
Immigrant ≥20 years | 1.11 (0.95, 1.31) | 0.20 | 1.19 (1.04, 1.37) | 0.01 |
Age (45–55 years) | ||||
56–65 years | 0.73 (0.63, 0.84) | < 0.001 | 0.79 (0.70, 0.90) | < 0.001 |
66–75 years | 0.47 (0.39, 0.57) | < 0.001 | 0.57 (0.49, 0.67) | < 0.001 |
76–85 years | 0.40 (0.31, 0.50) | < 0.001 | 0.56 (0.46, 0.69) | < 0.001 |
Income (≥ $150,000 CAD) | ||||
< $20,000 | 3.05 (2.26, 4.11) | < 0.001 | 3.19 (2.47, 4.13) | < 0.001 |
$20,000-49,999 | 2.21 (1.79, 2.73) | < 0.001 | 2.31 (1.91, 2.81) | < 0.001 |
$50,000-99,999 | 1.72 (1.44, 2.07) | < 0.001 | 1.62 (1.37, 1.92) | < 0.001 |
$100,000-149,999 | 1.44 (1.19, 1.73) | < 0.001 | 1.23 (1.02, 1.48) | 0.03 |
Not answered | 2.32 (1.73, 3.13) | < 0.001 | 2.39 (1.90, 3.01) | < 0.001 |
Marital status (Single) | ||||
Married/living with a partner/ common-law | 0.62 (0.52, 0.75) | < 0.001 | 1.00 (0.85, 1.19 | 0.96 |
Widowed/divorced/separated | 0.94 (0.75, 1.16) | 0.54 | 0.90 (0.76, 1.08) | 0.27 |
Education level (High school graduate and/or with some post-secondary) | ||||
Less than secondary school | 0.92 (0.70, 1.21) | 0.54 | 1.23 (1.00, 1.52) | 0.05 |
Post-secondary degree/diploma | 0.82 (0.70, 0.95) | 0.01 | 0.99 (0.87, 1.12) | 0.88 |
Not answered | 1.09 (0.30, 3.93) | 0.90 | 0.41 (0.11, 1.55) | 0.19 |
Physical Health | ||||
Morbidities (No conditions) | ||||
1 health condition | 1.36 (1.13, 1.65) | < 0.001 | 1.27 (1.05, 1.53) | 0.01 |
2 health conditions | 1.83 (1.51, 2.23) | < 0.001 | 2.18 (1.83, 2.61) | < 0.001 |
3 health conditions | 3.65 (3.03, 4.40) | < 0.001 | 3.01 (2.54, 3.57) | < 0.001 |
Hypertension levels (Normal) | ||||
Elevated | 1.02 (0.81, 1.28) | 0.88 | 1.07 (0.90, 1.27) | 0.45 |
Stage 1 hypertension | 1.10 (0.94, 1.28) | 0.23 | 1.31 (1.13, 1.51) | < 0.001 |
Stage 2 hypertension | 1.08 (0.89, 1.31) | 0.46 | 1.09 (0.91, 1.30) | 0.37 |
Taking anti-hypertensive | 0.92 (0.78, 1.08) | 0.30 | 1.12 (0.98, 1.29) | 0.10 |
Chronic pain (No pain) | ||||
Pain | 1.86 (1.63, 2.13) | < 0.001 | 1.79 (1.60, 1.99) | < 0.001 |
Refused | 2.17 (0.88, 5.38) | 0.09 | 1.35 (0.64, 2.88) | 0.43 |
Health Behaviors | ||||
Smoking ≥100 cigarettes (< 100) | 1.17 (1.04, 1.32) | 0.01 | 0.97 (0.88, 1.07) | 0.56 |
Binge drinking (No binge drinking) | ||||
Regular binge drinking | 1.03 (0.98, 1.20) | 0.66 | 1.05 (0.91, 1.22) | 0.51 |
Occasional binge drinking | 0.91 (0.79, 1.06) | 0.22 | 0.98 (0.86, 1.11) | 0.70 |
Physical activity (Sometimes or often) | ||||
Never or seldom | 1.06 (0.87, 1.29) | 0.59 | 1.14 (0.97, 1.35) | 0.12 |
No answer or refused | 1.02 (0.36, 2.89) | 0.98 | 0.97 (0.39, 2.44) | 0.96 |
Nutrition Status Indicators | ||||
BMI (Underweight: < 18.5) | ||||
Normal weight: 18.5–24.99 | 0.58 (0.27, 1.24) | 0.16 | 0.88 (0.55, 1.40) | 0.59 |
Overweight: 25–29.99 | 1.44 (0.28, 7.38) | 0.66 | 0.66 (0.36, 1.19) | 0.17 |
Obese: 30 or above | 0.89 (0.17, 4.76) | 0.89 | 0.48 (0.22, 1.02) | 0.06 |
Waist-to-hip ratio (Low risk) | 0.97 (0.79, 1.19) | 0.78 | 0.94 (0.84, 1.06) | 0.33 |
Waist-to-height ratio (Below cut-off) | 0.95 (0.81, 1.11) | 0.51 | 1.14 (0.98, 1.32) | 0.09 |
Disease risk (Least risk) | ||||
Increased | 0.39 (0.09, 1.64) | 0.20 | 1.32 (0.91, 1.91) | 0.14 |
High | 0.41 (0.10, 1.79) | 0.24 | 1.22 (0.80, 1.87) | 0.35 |
Very high | 0.61 (0.13, 2.80) | 0.53 | 1.55 (0.82, 2.94) | 0.18 |
Body fat percent (0–26%) | ||||
26–31% | 1.03 (0.89, 1.20) | 0.70 | 0.87 (0.61, 1.24) | 0.45 |
31–36% | 1.04 (0.85, 1.27) | 0.70 | 0.79 (0.57, 1.10) | 0.16 |
36–41% | 1.27 (0.89, 1.82) | 0.19 | 0.86 (0.61, 1.20) | 0.37 |
41–59% | 1.15 (0.73, 1.82) | 0.54 | 0.87 (0.61, 1.23) | 0.42 |
Grip strength (No under-nutrition) | ||||
Under-nutrition | 1.25 (1.08, 1.43) | < 0.001 | 1.25 (1.07, 1.45) | < 0.001 |
Not assessed | 1.27 (1.00, 1.63) | 0.05 | 1.08 (0.92, 1.28) | 0.34 |
Nutritional risk (Low risk) | ||||
High risk | 2.24 (1.98, 2.53) | < 0.001 | 2.24 (2.02, 2.49) | < 0.001 |
Not assessed | 1.18 (0.65, 2.14) | 0.59 | 1.95 (1.17, 3.24) | 0.01 |
Skeletal Muscle Index (No sarcopenia) | ||||
Sarcopenia | 1.05 (0.80, 1.36) | 0.74 | 0.43 (0.03, 6.33) | 0.54 |
T-scores (Normal bone density) | ||||
Osteoporosis | 0.63 (0.19, 2.06) | 0.44 | 1.11 (0.91, 1.37) | 0.30 |
Osteopenia | 0.98 (0.76, 1.26) | 0.88 | 1.11 (0.98, 1.24) | 0.09 |
Screen for anemia (Negative) | ||||
Positive | 1.16 (0.92, 1.44) | 0.20 | 1.01 (0.56, 1.82) | 0.97 |
No consent for blood work | 1.05 (0.91, 1.23) | 0.50 | 0.98 (0.86, 1.11) | 0.72 |
Dietary Intakes | ||||
Average daily intakes of fiber sources (0 to < 1) | ||||
≥ 1 to < 2 | 1.14 (1.00, 1.30) | 0.05 | 0.93 (0.83, 1.03) | 0.17 |
≥ 2 to < 3 | 1.04 (0.86, 1.24) | 0.71 | 1.13 (0.97, 1.32) | 0.11 |
≥ 3 | 1.47 (1.10, 1.95) | 0.01 | 1.17 (0.90, 1.52) | 0.25 |
Average daily intakes of pulses and nuts (0 to < 0.5) | ||||
≥ 0.5 to < 1 | 0.95 (0.82, 1.10) | 0.48 | 0.98 (0.86, 1.12) | 0.74 |
≥ 1 to < 2 | 0.94 (0.82, 1.08) | 0.41 | 1.04 (0.92, 1.16) | 0.56 |
≥ 2 | 1.06 (0.83, 1.36) | 0.65 | 0.91 (0.74, 1.13) | 0.40 |
Average daily intakes of fat sources (0 to < 2.5) | ||||
≥ 2.5 to < 4 | 0.83 (0.69, 1.00) | 0.05 | 1.00 (0.84, 1.17) | 0.96 |
≥ 4 to < 5 | 0.67 (0.54, 0.84) | < 0.001 | 0.91 (0.75, 1.10) | 0.34 |
≥ 5 | 0.69 (0.54, 0.88) | < 0.001 | 0.99 (0.81, 1.22) | 0.95 |
Intakes of fish (Consumes) | 1.32 (1.11, 1.57) | < 0.001 | 1.00 (0.85, 1.18) | 0.98 |
Intakes of omega-3 Egg (Consumes) | 0.86 (0.76, 0.98) | 0.02 | 1.02 (0.91, 1.14) | 0.73 |
Average daily intakes of fruits and vegetables (≥ 6) | ||||
0 to < 2 | 0.92 (0.71, 1.19) | 0.51 | 1.33 (1.09, 1.64) | 0.01 |
≥ 2 to < 3 | 0.87 (0.69, 1.11) | 0.28 | 1.04 (0.88, 1.24) | 0.64 |
≥ 3 to < 4 | 0.74 (0.58, 0.94) | 0.02 | 1.06 (0.90, 1.25) | 0.46 |
≥ 4 to < 6 | 0.71 (0.55, 0.91) | 0.01 | 0.97 (0.83, 1.13) | 0.71 |
Average daily intakes of pure fruit juice (No consumption) | ||||
≤ 1 per day | 1.01 (0.88, 1.15) | 0.94 | 0.98 (0.89, 1.08) | 0.67 |
> 1 per day | 1.05 (0.74, 1.49) | 0.78 | 1.80 (1.24, 2.59) | < 0.001 |
Average daily intakes of salty snacks (0) | ||||
0 to ≤1 | 1.04 (0.88, 1.23) | 0.63 | 1.19 (1.04, 1.36) | 0.01 |
> 1 day | 2.31 (0.89, 5.96) | 0.08 | 1.09 (0.41, 2.86) | 0.86 |
Average daily intakes of calcium sources with high vitamin D content (≥ 4) | ||||
0 to < 1 | 0.72 (0.52, 1.02) | 0.06 | 0.95 (0.70, 1.28) | 0.74 |
≥ 1 to < 2 | 0.73 (0.53, 1.00) | 0.05 | 0.96 (0.72, 1.26) | 0.75 |
≥ 2 to < 4 | 0.95 (0.71, 1.28) | 0.75 | 0.90 (0.69, 1.17) | 0.42 |
Average daily intakes of calcium sources with low vitamin D content (> 0) | ||||
No consumption | 1.02 (0.89, 1.17) | 0.75 | 1.10 (0.95, 1.28) | 0.19 |
Average daily intakes of pastries (0) | ||||
> 0 to ≤1 | 1.06 (0.87, 1.30) | 0.55 | 0.99 (0.85, 1.16) | 0.94 |
> 1 | 0.90 (0.57, 1.44) | 0.67 | 1.35 (0.93, 1.95) | 0.12 |
Average weekly intakes of chocolate bars (0) | ||||
> 0 to ≤0.6 | 1.14 (1.01, 1.30) | 0.04 | 1.15 (1.04, 1.28) | 0.01 |
> 0.6 | 1.72 (1.32, 2.25) | < 0.001 | 1.66 (1.35, 2.05) | < 0.001 |