Background
Methods
Inclusion criteria
Study foods
Iron fortified rice cereal Per 28 g (7–8 tbs) | Iron fortified rice cereal and fruit Per 28 g (7–8 tbs) | Meat Per 100 ml (1 jar) | |
---|---|---|---|
Energy (Kcal) | 120 | 120 | 140.9 |
Protein (g) | 4.0 | 3.0 | 12.0 |
Carbohydrate (g) | 21.0 | 21.0 | 0.3 |
Fibre (g) | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.3 |
Sugar (g) | 3.0 | 4.0 | 0.0 |
Fat (g) | 2.5 | 2.5 | 10.5 |
Cholesterol (mg) | ND | ND | 29.4 |
Vitamin A (μg) | 0.0 | 0.0 | 5.1 |
Vitamin B12 (μg) | 0.35 | 0.17 | 1.4 |
Vitamin B6 (mg) | ND | ND | 0.1 |
Thiamin (mg) | 0.36 | 0.27 | 0.1 |
Riboflavin (mg) | 0.38 | 0.38 | 0.2 |
Niacin (NE) | 0.20 | 0.20 | 3.8 |
β Carotene (μg) | ND | ND | 55.3 |
Vitamin C (mg) | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.0 |
Vitamin D (IU) | ND | ND | 10.1 |
Vitamin E (IU) | ND | ND | ND |
Sodium (mg) | 20.0 | 20.0 | 38.5 |
Potassium (mg) | ND | ND | 190.5 |
Calcium (mg) | 30.3 | 20.0 | 4.1 |
Iron (mg) | 8.80 | 8.80 | 1.3 |
Zinc (mg) | 0.09 | 0.07 | ND |
Copper (μg) | 13.2 | 13.2 | ND |
Magnesium (μg) | 11.2 | 15.0 | ND |
Phosphorus (mg) | 41.2 | 41.2 | 92.2 |
Iodine (μg) | 13.0 | 13.0 | ND |
Manganese (mg) | 0.04 | 0.00 | ND |
Selenium (μg) | ND | ND | 2.7 |
Nutrient and breast milk intakes
Growth
Laboratory methods
Sample collection
Urinary F2-Isoprostanes
Fecal iron
Fecal reactive oxygen species
Fecal calprotectin
Fecal microbiota
Statistical analysis
Results
Variable | Cer | Cer + Fr | M | All groups |
---|---|---|---|---|
(n = 22) | (n = 28) | (n = 32) | (n = 82) | |
Males (%) | 44.0 | 48.3 | 54.8 | 49.4 |
Birth weight (g) mean ± SD | 3437 ± 475 | 3693 ± 494 | 3544 ± 519 | 3563 ± 503 |
Length at birth (cm) mean ± SD | 52 ± 2.8 | 52.5 ± 2.6 | 51.7 ± 2.7 | 52 ± 2.7 |
HC at birth (cm) mean ± SD | 34.1 ± 2.0 | 34 ± 1.9 | 35.5 ± 1.8 | 34.7 ± 1.9 |
Gestation (wk) mean ± SD | 39.8 ± 1.3 | 39.8 ± 1.7 | 39.4 ± 1.0 | 39.7 ± 1.4 |
Parity (%) | ||||
1 | 32 | 27.6 | 35.5 | 31.8 |
2 | 36 | 41.4 | 51.6 | 43.5 |
≥ 3 | 32 | 30.8 | 12.9 | 24.8 |
Parity mean ± SD | 2.0 ± 0.8 | 2.3 ± 1.5 | 1.8 ± 0.9 | 2.0 ± 1.1 |
Mean Maternal age (years) | 31.1 ± 4.4 | 31.9 ± 4.1 | 34.5 ± 3.7* | 32.6 ± 4.3 |
Mode of delivery (%) | ||||
Vaginal | 83.3 | 92.3 | 83.3 | 86.3 |
Caesarian | 12.5 | 3.8 | 16.7 | 11.3 |
Other | 4.2 | 3.8 | 0.0 | 2.5 |
Antenatal-postnatal complication (%) | ||||
Yes | 24 | 20.7 | 29 | 24.7 |
No | 76 | 79.3 | 71 | 75.3 |
Fe supplementation during pregnancy (%) | 20 | 31 | 25.8 | 25.9 |
Vitamin supplementation during pregnancy (%) | 88 | 89.7 | 96.8 | 91.8 |
Vitamin supplementation during BF (%) | 48* | 62.1* | 79.3* | 63.9 |
Marital status (%) | ||||
Married | 88 | 93.1 | 93.5 | 91.8 |
Single | 4.0 | 6.9 | 0.0 | 3.5 |
Divorced | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
Common-law | 8.0 | 0.0 | 6.5 | 4.7 |
Maternal pre-pregnancy weight (Kg) mean ± SD | 67 ± 14.7 | 66.6 ± 12.1 | 69.8 ± 14.7 | 67.9 ± 13.8 |
Maternal height mean ± SD | 165 ± 6.3 | 166.3 ± 6.9 | 166.5 ± 7.5 | 166 ± 6.9 |
Maternal pre-pregnancy BMI mean ± SD | 24.6 ± 4.4 | 24.1 ± 3.9 | 25.3 ± 5.3 | 24.7 ± 4.6 |
Duration of previous BF (months) mean ± SD | 14.9 ± 8.9 | 12.3 ± 7.5 | 13.4 ± 6.2 | 13.5 ± 7.4 |
Maternal education (%) | ||||
Primary & secondary | 16 | 10.7 | 9.7 | 11.9 |
Post secondary | 84 | 89.3 | 90.3 | 88.1 |
Pre-delivery working mothers (%) | 76 | 85.7 | 96.8 | 86.9 |
Paternal weight (Kg) mean ± SD | 88.4 ± 14.9 | 92 ± 18.8 | 87.9 ± 11.7 | 89.5 ± 15.2 |
Paternal height mean ± SD | 179.5 ± 8.0 | 180 ± 7.1 | 180 ± 7.9 | 180 ± 7.6 |
Paternal BMI mean ± SD | 25.1 ± 8.7 | 28.3 ± 5.3 | 27.0 ± 4.2 | 26.9 ± 6.1 |
Paternal education (%) | ||||
Primary & secondary | 16.0 | 3.8 | 3.2 | 7.3 |
Post secondary | 84.0 | 96.2 | 96.8 | 92.7 |
No. of household occupants mean ± SD | 3.9 ± 0.8 | 4.3 ± 1.5 | 3.9 ± 1.0 | 4.0 ± 1.2 |
No. of household children mean ± SD | 1.8 ± 0.7 | 2.4 ± 1.5 | 1.9 ± 0.9 | 2.0 ± 1.1 |
Maternal smoking (%) | 4.0 | 0.0 | 3.2 | 2.4 |
Infant Vitamin D supplementation (%) | 96.0 | 100.0 | 90.3 | 95.3 |
Biomarker (mean ± SE) | Cer | Cer + Fr | M |
P (within groups) |
P (between groups) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Before CFs | After CFs | Before CFs | After CFs | Before CFs | After CFs | |||
Urinary F2-Isoprostane |
N = 7 |
N = 7 |
N = 8 |
N = 8 |
N = 10 |
N = 10 | 0.3 | 0.5 (Cer vs M) |
(ng/mg) (n = 25) | 0.45 ± 0.81 | 0.52 ± 0.78 | 0.35 ± 0.47 | 0.41 ± 0.08 | 0.48 ± 0.14 | 0.68 ± 0.12 | 0.5 (Cer vs Cer + Fr) | |
Fecal iron |
N = 22 |
N = 22 |
N = 26 |
N = 26 |
N = 29 |
N = 29 | <0.001* | <0.001* (Cer vs M) |
(Fe g/feces) (n = 77) | 3.9 ± 0.37 | 5.6 ± 0.38 | 3.9 ± 0.32 | 4.7 ± 0.34 | 2.9 ± 0.25 | 3.7 ± 0.25 | 0.014* (Cer + Fr vs M) | |
Fecal ROS |
N = 16 |
N = 16 |
N = 21 |
N = 21 |
N = 29 |
N = 29 | 0.002* | 0.6 (Cer vs M) |
(mmol/l) (n = 66) | 0.024 ± 0.007 | 0.037 ± 0.006 | 0.014 ± 0.003 | 0.031 ± 0.005 | 0.023 ± 0.004 | 0.028 ± 0.003 | 0.3 (Cer vs Cer + Fr) | |
Fecal calprotectin |
N = 14 |
N = 14 |
N = 19 |
N = 19 |
N = 10 |
N = 10 | 0.004* | 0.07 (Cer vs Cer + Fr) |
(mg/g feces) (n = 43) | 111.0 ± 12 | 122.3 ± 13 | 93.73 ± 12 | 154.5 ± 23 | 108.1 ± 11 | 131.9 ± 18 | 0.9 (Cer vs M) |
Dietary iron intake
Before CFs | After CFs | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Feeding group | Cer | Cer + Fr | M | Cer | Cer + Fr | M |
(n = 22) | (n = 28) | (n = 32) | (n = 22) | (n = 28) | (n = 32) | |
Iron (mg) (mean ± SE) | 0.28 ± 0.01 | 0.28 ± 0.01 | 0.29 ± 0.01 | 16.3 ± 2.5*
| 21.5 ± 3.4*
| 0.86 ± 0.08*,**
|